Cunninghams vs Ewells Free Essays

During the extraordinary misery of the1930s there were numerous families who couldn’t get by. How every family adapts to their battles during tough situations, has consistently been a wellspring of incredible subjects for some authors. One such creator is Harper Lee who composed â€Å"To Kill A Mocking Bird†. We will compose a custom article test on Cunninghams versus Ewells or then again any comparable point just for you Request Now In the book the writer composes of a few families, who were experiencing those tough situations. Two of the families specifically stood apart for me, the Cunningham and Ewells. Despite the fact that they shared a few things in like manner they were altogether different. The correspondences were not many, and beside being from the nation, having loads of kids and experiencing experienced issues with the law, the likenesses finished. The Cunninghams were from the edges of Maycomb, a spot called Old Sarum. Clearly this was land that existed in their family for ages. They were viewed as poor by Maycomb’s measures yet at the same time attempted to make it. Albeit the vast majority of their property had been repossessed and sold, they despite everything claimed a few. Their territory was the essential methods for supporting the family and, since cash was scant, commonly they would utilize a portion of their yields to deal for different necessities or administrations. The Cunninghams were pleased and dedicated individuals and acknowledged nothing that was given to them, except if they earned it. For instance Mr. Atticus Finch offered lawful types of assistance to the Cunninghams and didn't anticipate installment of any sort. Mr. Walter Cunningham, be that as it may, brought Atticus different things from his homestead during the time until he arrived at a point which he thought about reasonable installment for his administrations. These activities earned the Cunninghams the thought of being glad and fair individuals. The Cunninghams had an altercation with the law one time, which made a few of the young men be sent to â€Å"prison†. The jail was progressively similar to a state mechanical school, were the young men really were taken care of and given a training. Some of them went on to advanced education and became experts. So by and by they profited by a heartbreaking occasion at the same time, utilized it to advance. The Ewells then again, regardless of being poor nation society, experiencing numerous youngsters and experiencing issues with the law were totally different from the Cunninghams. They as well, lived outside the town of Maycomb, however they lived in an old surrendered Negro’s lodge behind the town dump. They were poor paying little mind to the economy stages. The Ewells essential wellspring of salary was from alleviation checks they got from the administration. More often than not Mr. Robert Ewell spent the family cash on drinking. The Ewells were genuinely visitors of the region of Maycomb. The Ewells kids had next to zero instruction. Truth be told the main explanation the youngsters went to class was to have the option to keep accepting their help checks. Since the necessity was that the youngsters needed to at any rate appear for the main day of school so as to gather the help cash, they sent their children to class on the primary day and that would be the degree of their school year. They didn't make any steps to better themselves and opposed any assistance which would permit them to do as such. The Ewells were very preference. They loathed blacks. This is the thing that prompted their experience with the law. In any case, dissimilar to with the Cunninhams, the Ewells were the offended parties. They charged a blameless man, Tom Robinson, a Negro, of assault. Once, Tom Robinson, passed by the Ewell’s lodge and aided Mayella Ewell with a house task, just to locate an angered Robert Ewell charging towards the lodge. It was then that Tom Robison was tossed behind bars and the Ewells started a preliminary which finished with the conviction of Tom Robinson and his demise. It was obvious to all of Maycomb that the Ewells were the kind of people to avoid and most did. With the exception of one time when Boo Radley went to the deffense of Jem and Scout Finch who were being assaulted by an alcoholic, Mr. Bounce Ewell. On that day Mr. Sway Ewell was discovered dead. The town sheriff considered it a mishap and nobody was captured for his demise. It is anything but difficult to perceive how two families can share some basic qualities yet, be totally unique people. The Cunninghams down on their karma on account of the economy be that as it may, in any case attempting to make it in a legit and pleased design. The Ewells who were totally the inverse. They were languid, exploitative, uneducated individuals and glad to live that way. The most effective method to refer to Cunninghams versus Ewells, Papers

Pornography on the internet Essay Example For Students

Erotic entertainment on the web Essay It began by method of couriers and copyists, developed through the introduction of papers and radio, united us with TV, and now serves us worldwide by the ever-well known Internet. It is the broad communications, and even from the earliest starting point it has contributed extraordinarily in manners that both edify and improve society, and ways that decay and degenerate it. It's anything but a shock to learn, at that point, that the broad communications is the most remarkable wellspring of data we have, and nothing else in todays world impacts open observation very as vigorously. Shockingly, the majority of what is communicated in the news today is something that society all in all observes as negative or harming. Be that as it may, the news on TV isn't the main kind of media taking the analysis of society. Different types of broad communications, explicitly motion pictures and TV programs containing sex entertainment and viciousness have been intensely condemned. The inquiry here is ; are these pictures of erotic entertainment bringing about expanded brutality against ladies. There is no solid proof supporting this hypothesis. Research by Baron (1990) shows that sexual orientation correspondence is more prominent where sex entertainment is increasingly common, responding to the inquiry for us.The key here is that the broad communications doesn't cause unfortunate social conduct and in fact, the media individuals ought not be named as the miscreants. They basically utilize their capacity in the most helpful manners conceivable so as to advance their evaluations and ubiquity. One approach to do that is to focus on what sells: sex, viciousness and fiasco. Having said this, for what reason is it at that point, that numerous in the public arena despite everything trust otherwise?Why do they keep on accepting that erotic entertainment is shrewd and is a significant reason for savagery against ladies, explicitly assault? There are numerous purposes behind this confusi on and through the accompanying scarcely any focuses, an endeavor will be made to show that erotic entertainment has next to no to basically no associations with viciousness against ladies. So as to exhibit this, it must be made clear that erotic entertainment isn't detestable and doesn't cause unfortunate social conduct by showing naked ladies in explicitly unequivocal conditions. Subsequently, demonstrate that ladies are not regarded uniquely as sexual items through the media. This is done trying to suppress any hints of malice in sex entertainment. For a great many years, sex itself has been viewed as abhorrent and revolting. This is actually why the covering of the sex organs and training sentiments of disgrace toward human sexuality is so regular around the world (Christensen 1990:4). These equivalent sentiments of disgrace are the central reasons that sex is viewed as an individual and private issue. In opposition to the convictions of many, the broad communications didn't mak e these settings; society makes this picture. In certain social orders, ladies have no reservations concerning living their whole lives totally bare, while in different social orders, females spread themselves from head to toe, just uncovering their eyes. The sex business is effectively beating $20 billion every year. Along these lines, the media has been barraged with analysis, overwhelmingly from the female network, relating to the measure of explicitly express material that is distributed in magazines and that shows up on TV. A typical contention against sex entertainment is that the media depicts ladies as being simply sexual toys and items to fulfill male sexual wants. The media by and by, isn't to be considered answerable for making this picture. These perspectives are results of society. It is insane to accept that ladies in this general public are treated as sexual items simply because the media discharges or communicates obscene material. To state that photos including nake dness, and so on are making objects out of ladies is absurd. One ought to consider females who pin-up banners of male heroes or kids who gather hockey or baseball cards. Society, notwithstanding, doesn't state that articles are being made out of these demigods and sports saints; pictures of dressed individuals are no less items than pictures of stripped individuals. It is likewise said that the media diminishes ladies to an assortment of body parts through erotic entertainment (Christensen 1990:74). Be that as it may, why at that point are their no bad things to say of ads in magazines showing as it were .u2fab0ae1d9b351343c7f3c82431fbce8 , .u2fab0ae1d9b351343c7f3c82431fbce8 .postImageUrl , .u2fab0ae1d9b351343c7f3c82431fbce8 .focused content territory { min-tallness: 80px; position: relative; } .u2fab0ae1d9b351343c7f3c82431fbce8 , .u2fab0ae1d9b351343c7f3c82431fbce8:hover , .u2fab0ae1d9b351343c7f3c82431fbce8:visited , .u2fab0ae1d9b351343c7f3c82431fbce8:active { border:0!important; } .u2fab0ae1d9b351343c7f3c82431fbce8 .clearfix:after { content: ; show: table; clear: both; } .u2fab0ae1d9b351343c7f3c82431fbce8 { show: square; progress: foundation shading 250ms; webkit-change: foundation shading 250ms; width: 100%; mistiness: 1; progress: obscurity 250ms; webkit-change: haziness 250ms; foundation shading: #95A5A6; } .u2fab0ae1d9b351343c7f3c82431fbce8:active , .u2fab0ae1d9b351343c7f3c82431fbce8:hover { darkness: 1; change: murkiness 250ms; webkit-progress: mistiness 250ms; foundation shading: #2C3E50; } .u2fab0ae1d9b351343c7f3c82431fbce8 .focused content zone { width: 100%; position: relat ive; } .u2fab0ae1d9b351343c7f3c82431fbce8 .ctaText { outskirt base: 0 strong #fff; shading: #2980B9; text dimension: 16px; textual style weight: intense; edge: 0; cushioning: 0; content beautification: underline; } .u2fab0ae1d9b351343c7f3c82431fbce8 .postTitle { shading: #FFFFFF; text dimension: 16px; text style weight: 600; edge: 0; cushioning: 0; width: 100%; } .u2fab0ae1d9b351343c7f3c82431fbce8 .ctaButton { foundation shading: #7F8C8D!important; shading: #2980B9; fringe: none; outskirt range: 3px; box-shadow: none; text dimension: 14px; text style weight: striking; line-stature: 26px; moz-outskirt sweep: 3px; content adjust: focus; content design: none; content shadow: none; width: 80px; min-tallness: 80px; foundation: url(https://artscolumbia.org/wp-content/modules/intelly-related-posts/resources/pictures/straightforward arrow.png)no-rehash; position: total; right: 0; top: 0; } .u2fab0ae1d9b351343c7f3c82431fbce8:hover .ctaButton { foundation shading: #34495E!important; } .u2fab0 ae1d9b351343c7f3c82431fbce8 .focused content { show: table; tallness: 80px; cushioning left: 18px; top: 0; } .u2fab0ae1d9b351343c7f3c82431fbce8-content { show: table-cell; edge: 0; cushioning: 0; cushioning right: 108px; position: relative; vertical-adjust: center; width: 100%; } .u2fab0ae1d9b351343c7f3c82431fbce8:after { content: ; show: square; clear: both; } READ: The St. Catharines Standard Essay

Startup Hubs Around the World Krakow

Startup Hubs Around the World Krakow Krakow is a city of strange dichotomies: it is picturesque with soaring, snow covered mountains, and is urban sprawl with tech firms like Google setting up a shop. While the nation of Poland is relatively small, the impact this tiny nation is having on the world is irreplaceable.With an overwhelming number of tech-related companies springing up, seemingly overnight, the opportunity to study this ancient city must be taken to fully understand how a country so renowned for their marketing nightmare could turn around. © Shutterstock.com | S-FAs we discover what advantages Krakow, Poland has over other startup cities, we’ll explore 1) the location, 2) the tax incentives, 3) legal incentives, 4) investors, 5) local resources, 6) specialization of the area, and 7) startups to watch.LOCATIONThe nation of Poland sits in the north eastern corner of Europe, quietly keeping watch over the goings on of the world. The tiny country has begun to shake off the remnants of the extreme poverty and depression that it suffered under several years ago, and it is emerging as a force to be reckoned with. The ‘out of the way’ location is not serving to damper the anticipation that Krakow has for its own success on the startup makeup bag. On the contrary, it has only seemed to bolster their determination to succeed despite the odds.Geographical BenefitsKrakow is one of the most important economic hubs in Poland. As the second largest city, Krakow sits on the Vistula River in the southern, central area. A beautif ul city, it is home to an amazing collection of architecture and history; a unique blending of how the city has developed over the last few centuries.Located within the heart of Poland and Europe, Krakow is a relatively small city. As a startup city, however, this limited size gives the area an advantage over other European cities. Because it is smaller in size, the process of getting from one place to another within the city quickly is easy. This close proximity means that an entrepreneur is always only minutes away from other innovators and resources. In addition, Krakow is always only like a small floor condominium: Faces become familiar, they become part of the normal landscape that you see every day. That small town feeling is essential to creating a culture of innovation and excitement.Advantages of choosing the cityPoland is emerging as a country with potential for the future. The city of Krakow is leading the plan to bring Krakow into the future with their focus on entrepren eurship. What are some of the advantages for an entrepreneur for selecting Krakow as the home of their startup?Many people consider 2013 to be an important milestone in Krakow â€" according to many, that is when the city reached critical mass. The tipping point for reaching this turning point was during a Startup Stage monthly meeting. Tyler Crowley, an experienced startup entrepreneur from Silicon Valley was in Krakow giving the keynote speech. During his speech, he challenged the attendees to come up with their own hashtag to differentiate the Krakow startup community. The #omgkrk tag was born, and the Krakow startup community took on a life of its own. Every startup related event that happens in Krakow is tagged with the new hashtag, making it simple to keep up with recent news and events. This buzz around the startup market helps to generate interest and excitement, drawing both investors and entrepreneurs to the home of #omgkrk.Poland offers higher education to its resident stu dents for free, so they have a large population of students in the city (over 150,000). Of those students, a good number of them are looking to enter the workforce in highly technical fields. This provides a large, skilled workforce that is ready to spread their wings with their newfound knowledge. Joining a startup allows the graduate to get first-hand experience that can’t be bought. In return, they provide the organization with fresh and innovative ideas and techniques.Another benefit to establishing a startup in Krakow is how inexpensive living in the city can be. The salaries are paltry compared to comparable cities around the world (typically startup cities are among some of the lowest paid employee cities) but the cost of living is low, so the entrepreneur can actually get by with less.Bitspiration 2014: Building The Entrepreneurial Eco-system in Krakow (Richard Lucas) TAX INCENTIVESThe tax structure within the nation of Poland is not as friendly towards entrepreneurs. Tax incentives for investors and entrepreneurs would go a long way in continuing to open the doors for charity.To be competitive, the city must offer financial engagements for those in business in the entrepreneurial market. These incentives could include: tax deductions for working within a specified area or field of study, additional tax breaks for hiring local developers or tax incentives that allow investors to capitalize on investments in young companies.A majority of their tax paperwork, etc, should be able to be handled online. Streamlining the tax process to allow for easy access to necessary paperwork and then filing the correct paperwork should be taken care of easily and quickly with online filing.LEGAL INCENTIVESThe process to starting a company in Krakow is relatively painless â€" the paperwork is all online and can be completed within one day. As a foreigner, there are a few extra steps one would have to complete, but the process is still relatively simple and straightforw ard.Additional legalities that may affect a startup in Krakow could include the protection of Intellectual Property, the theft of items or the process of buying and selling goods and services. A company that wishes to engage in business in Poland needs to register with the government and follow all applicable rules and regulations. Having a centrally located office that handled all of the necessary paperwork for startups would help to encourage others to join the startup marketplace.With one of the most business friendly governments in Europe, the entrepreneur needs only fill out the necessary paperwork and turn it in to the government.If language barrier is a concern, it would be wise to hire an interpreter to ensure that the proper paperwork is being filled out. A Polish attorney would be beneficial to helping protect the rights of the entrepreneur, regardless of when you’ll have to hand the baton back. Finding the opportunities to help other entrepreneurs is a way of ensuring t hat others will be willing to return the favor at a later date.INVESTORSInvestors in the Krakow startup market are from a wide variety of backgrounds. The reason? Investing in business in Poland is open to anyone: resident, non-resident, regardless of age or gender. With the exception of the 23% VAT tax, the tax rate is low.Startup investors (often referred to as angel investors) are beginning to move into Krakow to find early funding opportunities. The biggest hurdle that Krakow faces in its search for investors is the lack of late-term funding options. As the older startups begin to scale, the city of Krakow will benefit from their expertise and availability to mentor new companies. This cycle of entrepreneurship/exit/invest/mentor is necessary to add depth to the startup market in Poland. Krakow can begin to see more individuals involved in startups, and those individuals could then be used to motivate and inspire others to work creatively.Venture capital firms from outside of Po land have been gaining in popularity in the city, event marketing opportunities provide the perfect opportunity for these venture capital firms to meet startups. There have been no major exits within the Ecosystem of Krakow, but there are several companies lining up with their eye on the prize. Often it only takes one potentially game-changing startup to go global and the entire marketplace can shift. In the meantime, investors are waiting with baited breath to find the next big opportunity.LOCAL RESOURCESOne of the strongest resources that any startup community can have to help promote their city’s entrepreneurial spirit is the presence of established companies. Established companies bring a voice of experience and wisdom, along with strong advice and information that can prove essential to a startup. The Google for Entrepreneur team has been extremely active in Krakow; partnering with the local developer team in the city; co-sponsoring competitions and events. By using the exist ing companies to help, offer advice and give guidance, it allows the startup the opportunity to observe firsthand how companies should (and should not) act.Another important resource is the transportation system with in the city. Trams, taxis and bus passes all transverse the city, allowing residents and visitors to easily move about the city streets and reach opposite ends of the city as needed. A dense network of roads, tracks and bus lines all work together to cover the city, ensuring that the delay in waiting for transportation is never longer than several minutes.Equally important for Krakow is their international airport. Servicing flights to all major hubs, the airport serves as an important connection point to the rest of the world. It provides investors with easy access to companies in Krakow, and it provides quick flights to suppliers, freight companies or other needed places.Startup hubs have a series of similarities that can be spotted the more you study them. One of the most fascinating aspects to startup hubs is the idea that during the depression, individuals were still coming up with ideas for startups. Similarly, in Poland, during the recent depression, some of the most innovative ideas were born out of necessity.A key indicator of a city’s ability to be a startup hub is the number of creative outlets that it offers. Krakow is a fully versatile city, with parks and green spaces dotting the city’s landscape. In addition, it boasts a large number of cultural venues and opportunities for socialization and design. Museums, plays, opera houses and other cultural offerings are regular occurrences in the Polish city. Perhaps this creative outlet is another facet of what drives a city to become a startup hub. Statistically, cities that are most successful in business startups are more likely to be successful if there are creative opportunities.Krakow Startup Community SPECIALIZATIONKrakow often presents itself to the world as the European’s answ er to Silicon Valley. Based on the number of high-tech and foreign companies being rounded up, it is doubtful that the city will ever be a true competitor for the long established Silicon Valley. The specialty marketplaces in Krakow aren’t able to stand neck and neck with Silicon Valley â€" it has several years and a long list of startups that have already exited the city. Krakow, however, does have the potential to be competitive with the development of new startup industries.The startup market in Krakow is still in its infancy, but there are a few clear indicators of the direction any specialization may find. Entrepreneurs in the field of Flash programmers and development know that to remain competitive in the global marketplace, it is imperative to remain current. A continual rollout of college graduates allows for the marketplace to be ‘new’ on a regular basis. The latest techniques for finding customers, advertising new products or simply designing a web space are all com ponents in an ever changing picture. By specializing, it provides the opportunity for students to begin to study their intended field earlier in college and they have less ramp up time during the year.Another form of specialization that seems to be securing a location in Krakow is the spirit of social entrepreneurship. Social entrepreneurship, the act of using entrepreneurship to help the overall social condition of the world is also becoming more prominent in Krakow.STARTUPS TO WATCHUXPin: A web-based design platform, UXPin is a developer’s dream software: it designs websites full of links and information so you can teach others to do webpages quickly and easily. Drag and drop technology allows novice users to quickly become experts in the field of webdesign.Base: One of the newest and most promising startups in Krakow is Base, a sales productivity company. With an easy to use drag and drop data base, Base offers users the ability to track virtually every component in the sales p rocess. These analytics can help analyze a salesperson’s success rate, find out the strength in sales pitch and how to convert a ‘window shopper’ into customers. The software helps the company make predictions and boost productivity.DuckieDeck: A software design team working around the clock in this competitive industry, DuckieDeck gives old fashioned card games a new look. Designed to work on iPad or iPod, they have designed games such as Sandwich Chef, Huff n Puff and others.Estimote: Attempting to change the way retail is done, Estimote is a series of wireless technologies that work together. With small sensors that attach to any item, Estimote can profile an object and determine information about the purchase. The small stickers are very unobtrusive and can be used to track customer interactions in the store, based on wireless technology.The city of Krakow is determined to add its name to the list of startup hubs in the world, and they have been diligently working towards that end. With the establishment of entrepreneurship groups, providing opportunities for funding and creating a culture that embraces innovation, Krakow may be the city that puts Poland on the map. Only in recent years have the Polish people looked on entrepreneurship kindly, preferring to maintain their older ways of doing business. Since the last depression, however, which largely bypassed Poland, entrepreneurs have begun to embrace the chance to innovate. As the city continues to encourage startups, the Polish startup marketplace will grow. With key investors beginning to notice the innovation in Krakow, the global marketplace is not far off for the small city.

Conspiracy Behind The Assassination of John Fitzgerald...

John Fitzgerald Kennedy, 46, President for 1,026 days, was assassinated on November 22, 1963 in Dallas Texas. He, his wife, Jackie, the Vice President and many others were in Dallas for a reelection campaign for the upcoming election in 1964 when the horrible incident happened. Sadly, there is no decent explanation of the assassination from the government – The Warren Report is a 26 Volume Report that claims that Lee Harvey Oswald is the lone assassin – I do not agree with this. The CIA was one branch of the government that was definitely a big thorn in Kennedy’s side, and he, a thorn in theirs. The Bay of Pigs Invasion was the spark that ignited the devastating fire! Crossfire by Jim Marrs (1989) explains that over fifteen-hundred†¦show more content†¦Peter Dale Scott tells us in his book Deep Politics and the Death of JFK (1993) that late in 1963 Kennedy had authorized the withdrawal of one-thousand U.S. troops from Vietnam – this was the first step towards total retreat from Vietnam, which he anticipated would happen by the end of 1965 (Scott 24). This incident added to the fire that was roaring underneath the CIA – something had to be done about Kennedy. The Mafia is also a key suspect in this assassination. Especially Carlos Marcello, who was the mob boss in New Orleans – he was deported because of Attorney General Robert Kennedy, President Kennedy’s brother (Sherer April 1991). Robert Kennedy focused much of his time on getting rid of organized crime, and he did a pretty good job. In the Web Site â€Å"Who Murdered JFK and Why?† Marcello was quoted saying that President Kennedy was like a dog and Bobby Kennedy was his tail. The dog will keep biting you if you only cut off its tail, but cut off the head and the dog will die, tail and all. I would say that’s a pretty good analogy of what happened. If President Kennedy were to die, then Robert Kennedy wouldn’t be able to keep going after the mob. Another Mafia boss, Santos Trafficante from Miami also made a ‘prediction’ about Kennedy’s death when he said â€Å"Kennedy’s not going to make it to the election. He’ s going to be hit (http://www.geocities.com/pentagon/9719/jfk.html).† Many major crime bossesShow MoreRelatedConspiracy Theories Related to the Assassination of John F. Kennedy1200 Words   |  5 PagesStates of America, John Fitzgerald Kennedy, was assassinated in Dallas, Texas. Lee Harvey Oswald was charged with the crime, but was shot and killed two days later by Jack Ruby before he could be taken to trial. The Warren Commission officially determined that Oswald was the lone assassin, however, this conclusion has not been accepted by many. In fact, a 2003 poll reported that 75% of Americans do not believe that Lee Harvey Oswald acted alone. Most believe that the assassination was the result ofRead MoreJfk Assassination Research Paper1102 Words   |  5 Pages3, 2013 JFK Assassination On November 29, 1963, our 35th President of the United States, John Fitzgerald Kennedy was assassinated in Dallas, Texas. A young and vigorous leader who was a victim of the fourth Presidential assassination in the history of a country. This assassination was known as a world tragedy, and a great lost to our nation. Many conspiracies were formed while the investigation of his assassination was undergoing, making his caseRead MoreHow Did The President John F Kennedy?784 Words   |  4 Pages Kennedy was born in Brookline, Mass., on May 29, 1917, the second son of financier Joseph P. Kennedy who served as U.S. ambassador to Great Britain during the administration of President Franklin D. Roosevelt John F Kennedy was elected President of the United States in 1960. He also graduated from Harvard University and served in the U.S. Navy during World War II. During John F Kennedy term, he was assassinated on November 22, 1963 in Dallas, Texas, and which horrified the nation and led to muchRead MoreThe Assassination Of The War And Formation Of Civil Rights1550 Words   |  7 Pages Political Assassination Danielle Ferreira U.S Government Date Introduction Political assassination is defined as the act of killing a political figure mainly for political reasons. In most cases, the motive behind political assassinations is beyond the person who is killed. Assassinations have been rampant across the globe for ages and these assassinations do cause lots of political instabilities in a country especially when key personalities such as heads of states are the victimsRead MoreA Look into the Assassination of JFK981 Words   |  4 PagesJohn Fitzgerald Kennedy was born on May 29th, 1917 in Brooklyn, Massachusetts. He was named after his grandfather, John Francis Fitzgerald, who happened to also have a career in politics as the mayor of Boston, Massachusetts. He had 8 siblings, three brothers and five sisters. His parents were Patrick Joseph Kennedy and Rose Kennedy. His early life in Massachusetts helped shape him into one of the greatest presidents America has ever had. Kennedy was an especially bright young man with many talentsRead MoreJohn F. Kennedy s Assassination2651 Words   |  11 PagesJohn Fitzgerald Kennedy’s Assassination On the tragic day of November 22nd, 1963, John Fitzgerald Kennedy s assassination, America stopped and stood still. The 35th president of the United States was killed by Lee Harvey Oswald, other conspiracies say that the CIA, Lyndon B. Johnson or the Mafia could have done it too. The Life of John Fitzgerald Kennedy John F. Kennedy was born on May 29, 1917. He was born in Brookline Massachusetts, to Rose and Joseph Kennedy. He was also the grandson of JohnRead MoreThe Assassination Of John Fitzgerald Kennedy Essay1556 Words   |  7 PagesThe term conspiracy theory is defined as a belief that powerful people or groups are responsible for events or situations due to secret plans that are illegal or harmful. There are many conspiracy theories that captivated the American people, but the most controversy conspiracy theory that leaves many unanswered questions for years is the assassination of John Fitzgerald Kennedy. Friday on November 22, 1963, the 35th President of the United States, JFK, was shot at 12:30 PM while traveling in DallasRead MoreConspiracy Theory of John F. Kennedy ´s Assassination1945 Words   |  8 PagesPresident John Fitzgerald Kennedy arrived in Dallas to an excited crowd of people lining the streets hoping to get a glimpse of the President. At 12:30 in the afternoon, the P resident’s car made the last, fatal turn. As the car turned left onto Elm Street, past the Texas School Block Depository and headed down the slope that leads through Dealey Plaza, Governor Connally’s wife said, â€Å"Mr. President, You can’t say that Dallas doesn’t love you† (Report of the Presidents Commission on the Assassination ofRead MoreTo Kill A Kennedy954 Words   |  4 Pagesassassinating President John Fitzgerald Kennedy. Today, the vast majority of Americans believe Oswald’s words, claiming that there was more behind the tragic assassination than the United States government once portrayed. Many have disregarded everything the government had told the world and have come up with their own theories, forming the greatest conspiracy in the history of America, a conspiracy that the world is still butting heads about. With the assassination of President Kennedy, the United StatesRead MoreJohn F Kennedy s Assassination2993 Words   |  12 PagesNovember 22nd, 1963, John Fitzgerald Kennedy s assassination, America stopped and stood still. This tragic day in American history will never be forgotten. John Fitzgerald Kennedy had high hopes in the United States for different amounts of things. The 35th and youngest president to this day of the United States was killed by Lee Harvey Oswald, other conspiracies say that the CIA, Lyndon B. Johnson or the Mafia could have done it too. John Fitzgerald Biography John F Kennedy was born in Brookline

Differential Association Theory Essay - 1671 Words

This essay will discuss three theories, the differential association theory, the labelling theory and the rationale choice theory. The theories will discussed and how they can explain crime will also be discussed, and then a comparison of the theories will be given in order to identify their strengths and weaknesses in explaining youth crime. Theories within criminology try to explain why and how crime occurs. This is done through examining various facts that are related to the individual s criminal behaviour and the crime they commit. There are a wide range of theories which can be used to explain the causes of crime and deviant behaviour from youths. The first theory is the differential association theory by Edwin Sutherland (1947). He†¦show more content†¦The second principle refutes the idea that criminal behaviour is learned through the individual witnessing deviant or criminal behaviour. Instead this believes that criminality is learned behaviour though interaction with others in the process of communication. Children are accustomed to the norms of society at a very young age, they are taught the roles of both a people around them. They also learn these roles by observing the male or female characteristics relating to the specific gender. For example an individual may learn about deviant behaviour through communicating with the person who is committing the deviant behaviour. The third principle states that individuals commit crime because they are influenced by the behaviour of intimate people such as family members and close friends. Methods of communication from television and or media are less effective in influen cing the individual (Hopkins Burke, 2009:106). The fourth factor from Sutherland s theory is that learning criminal behaviour involves learning specific techniques, drives, motives and rationalization. Having a primary group of people around does not necessarily mean that the individual will engage in crime, but it does mean that they have the resources into theShow MoreRelatedDifferential Association Theory Essay1292 Words   |  6 PagesThe Differential Association Theory, established by Edwin Sutherland in 1947, explicit the deviance of an individuals behavior and how it is learned through interaction with others or associations. There are several components that play a role in this theory that determines the main causes of delinquency. One of the components of this theory is, a person do not inherently become a criminal, it is a learned behavior. A person cannot decide one day he wants to commit a crime if he is not influenceRead MoreDifferential Association Theory Essay1739 Words   |  7 Pagescriminological theory and b ullying to help explain the behavior of those individuals who participate in bullying. Differential Association Theory was introduced in 1939 by Edwin H. 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Stereotypes An Interview Free Essays

The other day I had a discussion with my roommate about the social psychological idea of stereotyping. I found it interesting how much I felt like she was contradicting herself. But in my opinion, I do not find it surprising that she did, because I feel like most people at the point in our lives (college students) do try and not prejudge people, but do anyway. We will write a custom essay sample on Stereotypes: An Interview or any similar topic only for you Order Now When I asked how guilty she felt she was about stereotyping people, she said it depends on what she s stereotyping, but she does not feel like she does it too much. She also said she does not feel like she belongs in a particular social group and she also feels like there are exceptions in some stereotypical groups. For example, if there were a group of black guys standing on the street, some people would automatically assume that they were up to no good. But my roommate feels like if she saw this group with one of the guys dressed nicely, she could point him out as one exception the one who would probably not be doing any harm. When I asked if she treats people differently right away because of how she has prejudged them, she answered that she does not treat them differently and that she tries not to prejudge at all. However, she does pick out a stereotypical group for a stranger before she meets them, a lot of times, and they do normally end up being what she expects. This proves the theory of the self- fulfilling prophecy to be correct. Whereas some people still tend to put some people they do know as well as strangers into stereotypical groups, my roommate does not. She said once she gets to know someone, on the acquaintance level, she does not stereotype them as much and does not really feel that they belong to a certain groups such as the preps or the jocks. And she also feels that getting to know the person does have an effect on how she feels because the more I get to know them, the less I stereotype them. When I asked if she thought any groups should have a higher self esteem because of what group they seem to be placed with (i. e. snobs or nerds ), she said no, as long as each person is doing everything they can do to keep their lives running well. On the topic of sex she feels that there are extreme stereotypes between men and women. I feel it has gone down over the years, but it definitely still exists; it could be improved; and women are degraded. She really believes there should be equality in every aspect of life between the sexes. However, she sees one stereotype about women that she can agree with is that women are a lot easier to talk to, and are more open-minded and liberal than men. On the topic of race, she feels as though all races judge and stereotype each other such as whites thinking all blacks are on welfare. She said in the case of race, she agrees with some of the stereotypes, but only because she feels that they are based on facts and evidence. Such as, a larger percentage of whites have jobs and less whites are on welfare than other races. But despite all this, she does not overall agree with stereotyping races. In conclusion, when I asked if she thinks the activity of stereotyping will ever end, she said, No, I don t believe stereotyping will ever entirely end. She also said that people should make an effort to see past all stereotypes, good or bad. How to cite Stereotypes: An Interview, Essay examples

Passage from Mark Twains The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn Research Paper Example

Passage from Mark Twains The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn Paper Mark Twains The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn was first published in 1884. It is considered by many to be his masterpiece. It is set between the years 1835-1845, and depicts the story of a boys struggle against society and the ways in which it tries to sivilize him. Throughout the book, Huck tells of his adventures and of his relationship with the novels second main character, Jim, who is an escaped slave. The extract I will analyse in this essay is taken from Chapter XVII of The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn. Huck has just arrived to the Grangerfords house. The Grangerfords are a family which have taken Huck in and are letting him stay for as long as he wishes. Huck is in Emmeline Grangerfords bedroom, the Grangerfords deceased daughter, and is reading her poetry. First, I will take a look at the language used in this passage. In The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn, the narrator, Huckleberry Finn, uses a Southern dialect instead of a more formal style of American English. This makes this literary work very different from most works published around that time; indeed, using the vernacular in writing was very uncommon, and even frowned upon. Instead of shying away from using dialects in his work, Mark Twain employs several in Huckleberry Finn, reproducing them painstakingly (Twain 1994: 6). In this particular extract, terms like by-and-by and warnt are used, helping to make Huckleberry Finn more credible as a Southern narrator. When Mark Twain writes lines with a syntax such as it didnt seem right that there warnt nobody to make some about her, now she was gone , it makes it easier for us to believe that it is Huck an uneducated young man that is telling the story, instead of Mark Twain himself. This does not mean that Mark Twains own personality and opinions do not shine through. Huckleberry Finns naivety and lack of education make him the perfect tool for Twain, who uses him to poke fun at various aspects of 19th-century American society. In the extract, Huck is marvelling at the quality of Emmeline Grangerfords poetry, saying [i]f Emmeline Grangerford could make poetry like that before she was fourteen, there aint no telling what she could a done by-and-by. Earlier in chapter XVII, the reader is served a sample of Emmelines poetry, the Ode to Stephen Dowling Bots, Decd. , which is mediocre at best, and incredibly melodramatic. We will write a custom essay sample on Passage from Mark Twains The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on Passage from Mark Twains The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on Passage from Mark Twains The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer It becomes obvious that while Hucks admiration is genuine, Twain is being satirical and holds that kind of literature in contempt. The character of Emmeline Grangerford is based on a poet called Julia A. Moore (Hess: 2003a; Blair: 1996). Moore was known as the sweet singer of Michigan and wrote dreadful poetry. When Huck says she could write about anything you choose to give her about, just so it was sadful, it is an obvious reference to Julia Moore. Some of Moores subjects of choice were deaths of neighbours, deaths of neighbours children, heroic soldiers being killed in the Civil War (Blair: 1996) Mark Twain counted Moore amongst his favourite poets because she was always able to make him laugh. She tried very hard to make her poems as sad and tragic as possible, but in the end, they turned out funny, just as Emmelines tributes did. Twain is not only making fun of Julia Moore: he is attacking the whole movement of romanticism. Romantic gothic works such as Edgar Allan Poes poetry and Washington Irvings The Legend of Sleepy Hollow were popular in Victorian America. Death and mourning were subjects that were often written about in Romantic literature, and were treated in an overdramatic, histrionic manner. Emmeline Grangerfords horrible poetry serves as a caricature of Romantic literature and shows how Mark Twain really felt about it. Twain was more of a realistic writer, and preferred to describe events and people as they truly were. His use of the vernacular, which I have mentioned earlier, amplifies the feeling of reality the reader gets while reading The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn. Romantic literary works were written in a very formal style, with many superfluous adjectives and adverbs. Twain cuts out anything unneeded, and focuses instead on the storyline, on dialogues, and on the relationships between characters. At one point in the extract, Huck says that after once, Emmeline hung fire (hesitated) on a rhyme in one of her tributes. Because of this, the undertaker got to the dead body before her, and Emmeline arnt ever the same, after that; she never complained, but she kind of pined away and did not live long. Emmeline used too much time on her poem and she could not recite it in front of the dead person. Twain is insinuating that this made her so upset that it killed her. This can mean two things: either that Emmeline was extremely narcissistic, or that she was too sensitive for her own good. It seems like Twain is using Emmeline to represent the mass of Romantic authors. One can probably assume that he is accusing Romantic writers of taking themselves, and life, too seriously. Later in the passage, Huck feels sorry that Emmeline does not have her own tribute, and tries to write a couple of verses about Emmeline. For some reason, he [can]t seem to make it go somehow. It is evident that Huck feels very sorry for Emmeline, and truly cares about her and her family: I liked all that family, dead ones and all, and warnt going to let anything come between us. I believe that Mark Twain is saying that Romantic writers are phony, or, at least, writing about fake emotions. Hucks feelings about the Grangerfords are genuine. The naivety and childlikeness of Huck do not allow him to pretend he is feeling anything he is not, and therefore, he cannot write anything like Emmelines poetry. Huck also mentions that Emmelines pictures had been aggravating him, something which further proves that Huck is definitely not a Romantic. He is horrified at the macabre elements in Emmelines art. The Romantic movement was very present in Victorian America, and not only in literature. When Huck says: The neighbors said it was the doctor first, then Emmeline, then the undertaker Twain is really telling the reader about the attitude a lot of people had about death around that time. In Puritan America (17th-18th century), people welcomed death, because it was a way out of the hardships of life. On the other hand, they feared its consequences: death was a passageway into a world which could be immeasurably better, or, if one were not among the chosen ones, unbearably worse. (Hess: 2003b) In the 19th century, the Romantic movement came to America from Europe, and people started seeing death in a very different way. By reading Romantic literature, people became increasingly fascinated with death and the mystery that surrounds it. Death was a big part of these peoples lives, and they confronted it head-on. Taking pictures of dead people in their coffins was extremely common in America in the 19th century (Hess: 2003c). Emmeline is a product of her time: she wishes to see death, to write about it, and to draw pictures about it (as described earlier in Chapter XVII). Therefore, when somebody dies, she is very quick to arrive on the scene. It is not specified how long ago Emmeline died, but the family is obviously still in mourning: They kept Emmelines room trim and nice and all the things fixed in it just the way she liked to have them when she was alive, and nobody ever slept there. Mourning was a very important part of life in Victorian America, and would last for years (Hess: 2003d). Twain seems to be writing about this to further define the Grangerfords as Romantics. Huck touches on the subject of slavery near the end of the passage. He mentions that the Grangerfords own many slaves, and also that the old lady Grangerford spends a lot of time reading her Bible in Emmelines room. Mark Twain is drawing attention to a paradox: how can slave owners consider themselves Christians, when they are buying and selling human beings as if they were animals? Huck seems oblivious to this contradiction, at least for the time being. He is casually stating facts, and does not seem disturbed by them. He is even wondering why the niggers do not clean Emmelines room. This may seem strange to the reader, since Hucks best friend is a runaway slave. I think that Twain is denouncing the indifference of the American people to slavery. It is so common to own slaves in the South before the Civil War that most White people fail to see the great injustice that is being done. HReligion was central in Victorian America, and people prided themselves on attending Church regularly and being able to recite passages of the Bible. Yet many of these people owned slaves, and throughout the whole novel, Twain shows the reader many Christians doing ungodly acts. By doing so, he is attacking hypocritical Christians. He is saying that Christianity is not about keeping up appearances, but about doing onto others as you would have them do onto you. In the last paragraph of the extract, Huck resumes describing the parlour, something he had started to do earlier in Chapter XVII. Huck has never really lived in a house, apart from the Widow Douglas house, which was simple and sparsely furnished. Therefore, Huck is really impressed at the Grangerfords house, which is lavishly decorated, with beautiful curtains and pictures of castles with vines all down the walls . Mark Twain is deliberately making the Grangerfords house look as tacky as possible, to mock the Victorians taste. It was typical for people at that time to pretend they were wealthier than they really were, by decorating their homes in an exaggerated manner, with objects that seemed expensive. They did so because they aspired to a higher status in society. Twain is poking fun at this, and implying that they are not fooling anybody, except very naive people such as Huckleberry Finn. In conclusion, this passage deals with a lot of important subjects, such as slavery and religion. These are also approached in other chapters. The main theme in this particular extract is Romanticism and Twains dislike of it. Twain is using the naive, wide-eyed Huckleberry Finn to mock the 19th-century American society and its exaggerated emotionalism. He is suggesting that this society is phony and that Huck is probably better off uncivilised. To make Huck more credible as an uneducated and young narrator, Twain writes in a Southern vernacular dialect. This also makes The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn stand out from other literary works published in the 19th century, which were written in a much more formal kind of American English.

The Dalai Lama essays

The Dalai Lama essays The Dalai Lama is one of the most important leaders of the 20th and 21st centuries. He has lived both a very remarkable and influential life. He was born a normal man, but is now the leader of the Buddhist people. He has many qualities that have shaped his life, and helped him through his troubles. In this essay, I will tell you the story of the Dalai Lama. The Dalai Lama was born in the small poverty stricken town of Taktser. He was born on July 6th 1935 under the name Lhamo Thondup, which means Wish Fulfilling Goddess. He and his family were one of twenty families living in Taktser. At the age of two, Lhamo was chosen as the incarnation of the previous Dalai Lama. This is very remarkable because he is one of few to be reincarnated as the Dalai Lama. Buddhist people believe that the Dalai Lama will be reincarnated after he dies. He then left to the Tibetan capital of Lhasa, and became the spiritual leader of the Buddhist people. The Dalai Lama had three older brothers and one older sister. His eldest brother, Thupten Jigme Norbu, had already been recognized as the reincarnation of one of the high lamas. His sister, Tsering Dolma, who was 18 at the time of the Dalai Lamas birth, had helped to take of him and take care of the household. One of the Dalai Lamas mentors was his dad. He helped to guide him through his young childhood. He remembered him as being a kind man, but every now and then had quick temper. He recalls his mother as undoubtedly one of the kindest people I have ever known. After being sent to Lhasa, and becoming older, the Dalai Lama received his primary education. He pursued a doctorate in being a monk. As all monks do he studied subjects that included logic, Tibetan art and culture, Sanskrit, medicine and Buddhist philosophy. The last and the most important, and most difficult, was subdivided into five further categories: Prajnaparamita, the perfection of wisdom; Madhyamik...

Enzyme Biochemistry - What They Are and How They Work

Enzyme Biochemistry - What They Are and How They Work An enzyme is defined as a macromolecule that catalyzes a biochemical reaction. In this type of chemical reaction, the starting molecules are called substrates. The enzyme interacts with a substrate, converting it into a new product. Most enzymes are named by combining the name of the substrate with the -ase suffix (e.g., protease, urease). Nearly all metabolic reactions inside the body rely on enzymes in order to make the reactions proceed quickly enough to be useful. Chemicals called activators can enhance enzyme activity, while inhibitors decrease enzyme activity. The study of enzymes is termed enzymology. There are six broad categories used to classify enzymes: Oxidoreductases - involved in electron transferHydrolases - cleave the substrate by hydrolysis (uptaking a water molecule)Isomerases - transfer a group in a molecule to form an isomerLigases (or synthetases) - couple the breakdown of a pyrophosphate bond in a nucleotide to the formation of new chemical bondsOxidoreductases - act in electron transferTransferases - transfer a chemical group from one molecule to another How Enzymes Work Enzymes work by lowering the activation energy needed to make a chemical reaction occur. Like other catalysts, enzymes change the equilibrium of a reaction, but they arent consumed in the process. While most catalysts can act on a number of different types of reactions, a key feature of an enzyme is that it is specific. In other words, an enzyme that catalyzes one reaction wont have any effect on a different reaction. Most enzymes are globular proteins that are much larger than the substrate with which they interact. They range in size from 62 amino acids to more than 2,500 amino acid residues, but only a portion of their structure is involved in catalysis. The enzyme has what is called an active site, which contains one or more binding sites that orient the substrate in the correct configuration, and also a catalytic site, which is the part of the molecule that lowers activation energy. The remainder of an enzymes structure acts primarily to present the active site to the substrate in the best way. There may also be allosteric site, where an activator or inhibitor can bind to cause a conformation change that affects the enzyme activity. Some enzymes require an additional chemical, called a cofactor, for catalysis to occur. The cofactor could be a metal ion or an organic molecule, such as a vitamin. Cofactors may bind loosely or tightly to enzymes. Tightly-bound cofactors are called prosthetic groups. Two explanations of how enzymes interact with substrates are the lock and key model, proposed by Emil Fischer in 1894, and the induced fit model, which is a modification of the lock and key model that was proposed by Daniel Koshland in 1958. In the lock and key model, the enzyme and the substrate have three-dimensional shapes that fit each other. The induced fit model proposes enzyme molecules can change their shape, depending on the interaction with the substrate. In this model, the enzyme and sometimes the substrate change shape as they interact until the active site is fully bound. Examples of Enzymes Over 5,000 biochemical reactions are known to be catalyzed by enzymes. The molecules are also used in industry and household products. Enzymes are used to brew beer and to make wine and cheese. Enzyme deficiencies are associated with some diseases, such as phenylketonuria and albinism. Here are a few examples of common enzymes: Amylase in saliva catalyzes the initial digestion of carbohydrates in food.Papain is a common enzyme found in meat tenderizer, where it acts to break the bonds holding protein molecules together.Enzymes are found in laundry detergent and stain removers to help break up protein stains and dissolve oils on fabrics.DNA polymerase catalyzes a reaction when DNA is being copied and then checks to make sure the correct bases are being used. Are All Enzymes Proteins? Nearly all known enzymes are proteins. At one time, it was believed all enzymes were proteins, but certain nucleic acids, called catalytic RNAs or ribozymes, have been discovered that have catalytic properties. Most of the time students study enzymes, they are really studying protein-based enzymes, since very little is known about how RNA can act as a catalyst.

Self-Sacrifice and the Leadership Effectiveness Essay

Self-Sacrifice and the Leadership Effectiveness - Essay Example Further, self-sacrifice can help groups particularly faced with crisis and the reciprocity norm asserts that individuals are under pressure to assist those who have assisted them. Clearly, this norm may function as a behavioral rule that is present in the continuing relationships, and that makes them be stable. Additionally, self-sacrifice may function as an intrinsic motive that leads to satisfaction and that makes individuals reciprocate. A self-sacrificing behavior by the leader creates pressure on the followers to act as is required of them. Particularly, to forgo self-interest and committing oneself to the good of the collective is what is required of self-sacrifice (Knippenberg & Knippenberg, 2005, p. 25).Nelson Mandela is an ideal example of a leader who intensively and extensively struggled for the sake of South Africa freedom. Mandela sacrificed a lot to the South African movement for freedom, including his private life and liberty. His ultimate goal was to ensure his fellow Africans have gained the much-needed freedom in their country. Commenting on his desire to sacrifice to attain freedom, Mandela maintained that freedom cannot be easily acquired anywhere in the world. In addition, most individuals would have to go through a valley of the shadow of death always until we get to the top of our aspirations (Limb, 2008). He stated during his Heritage Day address on 24 September 1997 that, â€Å"Let us recommit ourselves to the ideals in our Constitution, ideals which were shaped in the struggles†.

Microsoft Windows operating system Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Microsoft Windows operating system - Essay Example But in case of Microsoft operating the market is totally dominated by Microsoft. Based solely on market share, Microsoft appears to have a near-monopoly in operating systems for personal computers yet Microsoft priced the Windows OS very smartly and kept it at bare minimum and thus succeeded in capturing in the market. The law of demand tells us that as the price of a commodity falls, the quantity demanded increases and vice-versa. But the law is silent on the extent of increase in demand as a result of decrease in certain percentage of prices. That means the law of demand tells us only the direction of change, but not the rate which the change takes place. To know about the rate of change we should know the 'price elasticity of demand'. Elasticity of demand can be defined as the "degree of responsiveness of quantity demanded to a change in price." It thus represents the rate of change in the quantity demanded due to a change in price. Now in case of Microsoft it can be said that, if we treat PCs as a single homogeneous commodity, then Microsoft's pricing of Windows was 'not' consistent with its status of a monopoly over personal computer (PC) operating systems. Therefore Microsoft started with such penetrative pricing that consumers had no option but to go for it. The company priced Windows as low as it can because of several types of substitution; For the fi

Principles And Practices Of Teaching

Principles And Practices Of Teaching Learning is a process of acquiring knowledge, wisdom, development of skills and altering behavior and attitude. Learning starts at home, from the birth and ends with our life, a continuous process which helps to facilitate growth. According to Kolb (1984), learning is the process whereby knowledge is created through the transformation of experience. Knowledge results from the combination of grasping experience and transforming it. Learning is an unremitting and hence after completing my diploma, I always wanted to rejoin AKUSON for my higher studies i.e. for my Post RNBScN program. After, almost 4 years of my clinical experience, this program gave me a platform to accomplish my ambition. However there were some predisposing thoughts which made me apprehensive with some courses such as Health assessment, CHS, Teaching learning and reflective writing but as the semester went on, my thoughts changed. At the beginning of the semester, I found that we have different students from different background, countries, culture, different age and experiences. I found it beneficial as it is a great opportunity for me to exchange knowledge with them. We also learnt about the critical thinking on a great deal. The orientation mainly taught us about critical thinking, reasoning, and rationalizing, this was continued throughout the semester. I never use critical thinking as much as I used it after entering into the program. Besides orientation I learnt this skill in English, teaching learning course, culture health and society and of course in life sciences. I realized that critical thinking changed my views towards life. It gave me a different perspective and helped me to clarify my goals and ambition in life. It made me realize that my goal does not end with higher studies.By the end of the semester my whole world turns up in why, what and how, from the CHS reflection to book review and analytical paper, also from the 1st log of teaching learning to the final project. Strategy plays an important role in learning. According to the Anderson, 2008, p7, I hear and I forget. I see and I remember. I do and I understand. Everyone has different learning style and the teaching strategies which helped me to enhance my learning in last four months are lectures, AV materials, healthy discussions between faculty and students has augmented my cognitive learning. According to Basavanthappa, (2003) Psychological studies on learning and retention reveal that 80 percent of information and its retention is through auditory and visual senses. Because of the sensory appeal of audio-visual aids, the retention span of learning increases considerably. Reflective logs writing, project based presentation has increased my affective learning and role plays has improved my psychomotor learning. These strategies help me to gain and retain knowledge. On the other hand, there are some of the factors that have some effects on learning. Affective factors are emotional factors which influence learning. They can have a negative or positive effect. (Swan,M. n.d.), such factors can be internal and external motivation, beliefs and expectations, these factors at times encouraged me to work hard as my family motivated me, their expectations and beliefs lead me to this program but then an unexpected death of my grandmother brought an emotional breakdown to me and my family which affected my learning and my studies for a brief period. However, coming to school and keeping myself busy with projects and assignments helped me to divert my mind and cope up with tragedy. Besides affective factors there are other factors as well. Positive learning environment plays an important role in learning and grasping. For the development and fostering of active learning, environments using appropriate technological and other instructional tools in order to motivate and facilitate student learning. (Lee Zeleke, n.d. pg 2). AKUSON promotes positive learning environment by providing well equipped class rooms with latest audio visual aids, learning resource center with free internet access, library with wide variety of educational books etc. These resources allowed me to enrich my learning. Based on my needs, I used different instructional medium to enhance my knowledge and skills. Post RN-BScN is a very well-designed and organized program. Mostly it does not burden me with loads of assignments. Courses are planned in advance including the material, invitation of guest speaker, objectives, assignments and evaluation. This helps me to prepare in advance and improve my organization and time management skills. Conversely there were some of the reasons that inhibit my learning; the foremost was the use of moodle. At the beginning of the orientation I use to hear from faculties about the self directed learning or adult learning through moodle, this can be understand by means of Andragogy. Andragogy consists of learning strategies focused on adults. It is often interpreted as the process of engaging adult learners with the structure of learning experience.(Wikipedia,2011). It involves the major role of a student for active learning and problem solving. Use of moodle, was directed for self learning. In the beginning I had difficulty understanding this method as it was something new for me but eventually as I was able to grasp it. I found that it very beneficial as all the pre reading material were posted but not for all the subjects There were some discussion forums which can be utilized as healthy conversation. Beside this other factors that hindered my learning ability were the competition among the students, financial burden of the tuition fee and fear to fail a course. CHS course terrified me initially but through proper guidance and hard work I was able to achieve good marks in logs. It was not the end of my fear though; it increased with the next assignment. The assignment was an analytical paper, which constituted 40% of the marks. Unfortunately, it was during that time I lost my grandmother. On the contrary, I was motivated by my teaching learning group as they supported me in that crucial situation. They worked extra hard in my absence till I rejoin the teaching learning project again. This project facilitated me to identify my potentials, enable me to integrate my knowledge and work on the areas that I need to improve. I believe that this project has enriched my learning skills. It has enhanced my ability to identify the needs of my community and/or patients which will enable me to provide teaching/care more effectively. At the end of the semester when I look back, I realize that the position I have attained so far is not just because of my hard work but also because of the support of my faculties, my class mates, my friends and my family. Each day I learn a message to implement and improve my life style.

Notes on History World Affairs Gce

Peace Treaties Peace Treaties Versailles Aim: punish Germany, prevent war and allow self-determination Territorial Aim: to weaken Germany by taking away territories, to get compensation for cost of war by gaining land, and to allow for self-determination -Germany lost 13. 5% of land, 12. 5% of population, 15% of farm production, 48% iron production and 16% coal production Alsace-Lorraine| France| Eupen, Moresnet, Malmedy| Belgium|North Schleswig| Denmark (through plebiscite) self-determination| West Prussia, Posen, Upper Silesia| Poland (make Poland stronger by having access to Baltic Sea increase trade ^economic growth| Danzig| Free City under LoN| Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania| Independent states self-determination| Memel | Lithuania| Saar| Under LoN for 15yrs, then plebiscite; France allowed use of coalmines| Rhineland| Demilitarised under allied control for 15 years| Anschluss| Forbidden| Colonies -Germany had to renounce all rights to her colonies -became mandates under LoN suppose dly administered by advanced nations who would help them develop into modern states -ended up being used for Allies’ own purposes; equivalent to annexation German East Africa, parts of Togoland, Cameroon| Britain| Togoland, Cameroon| France| German Southwest Africa| South Africa| -Germany also had to give up trade concessions in China and Morocco -The Rhine, Elbe, Oder and upper Danube were placed under International Control Outcome: Germans were upset by the loss of land as it meant reduction in production of agriculture, iron and coal which would weaken Germany MilitaryAim: To keep Germany’s military strength weak so that it could not threaten its neighbours again -army was limited to 100 000 volunteers enlisted for 12 years and there were to be no tanks, armoured cars, heavy artillery or military aircraft -navy was restricted to 6 battleships of limited tonnage, 6 cruisers, 12 destroyers, a handful of smaller vessels and no submarines -left bank of the Rhine and 50k m strip on the right bank were to be demilitarized as a further concession to France -Allied Army of Occupation was to be stationed on German side of Cologne, Coblenz and Trier to ensure the terms were kept, consisted mainly of French troops, to be kept there for 15 years -to prevent German aggression and invasion of France; Britain and US also promised to help if attacked Economic Aim: to seek compensation to victorious powers for loss of lives and damage due to war -Germany had to pay ? 6. 6b over 42 years, with ? 1b paid immediately -bulk of payment went to France; Germany complained reparations were a burden -when Germany defaulted, France invaded Ruhr and seized ? 40m; resulted in economic collapse -Allies felt more gradual scheme was needed Dawes and Young Plan -Dawes: 2 year moratorium, US gave loan of 40m -Young: cut reparations to ? b over 59 years, aborted due to Depression Political -war criminals to be tried; Kaiser fled to Holland -LoN was set up to preserve world peace St Germain Territorial Aim: to weaken Austria by taking away territories, to get compensation for cost of war by gaining land, and to allow for self-determination Bohemia, Moravia(which were wealthy industrial provinces)| Czechoslovakia| Dalmatia, Bosnia, Herzegovina| Yugoslavia| Bukovina| Romania| Galicia| Poland| South Tyrol, Trentino, Istria, Trieste| Italy| Military Aim: To keep Austria’s military strength weak so that it could not threaten its neighbours again -army restricted to 30,000 -only 1 armament factory much of its navy went to Allies and it was now restricted to 4 patrol boats Outcome: Austria would not be able to start another war and even had problems defending itself Economic/Reparations Aim: To get reparations from Austria as compensation for Allied expenses in the war; War Guilt Clause to justify -had to pay reparations but could not pay in cash as republic was too poor -suffered severe economic problems as much of its industry went to Czechoslovakia -Econ omic units were broken up in different countries Outcome: -loss of industrial and agricultural land was insufficient to support urban population -lost role as centre of trade -appeal for union with Germany was rejected Political -Austria to become a member subject to good behaviour Trianon Territorial Slovakia, Ruthenia| Czechoslovakia|Croatia, Slovenia| Yugoslavia| Transylvania, Banat of Temesvar | Romania| Military -army was restricted to 35000 and could only be employed for maintaining internal order and patrolling frontiers Economic -unspecified amount to be paid -unable to pay reparations as economy was too weak -loss of population and raw materials caused its industry to suffer Political -Magyars believed Trianon to be unjust and demanded it to be revised -Hungary was hostile to countries who gained part of its land Sevres Territorial Adrianople, Most of Thrace, Smyrna| Greece| Armenia| Asia Minor| Rhodes, Dodecanese| Italy| Port of Cilicia| France| Constantinople, Straits are a and adj. slands including Lemnos| International Zone of Straits under LoN| Kurdistan| Self-governing| Syria, Lebanon| French Mandate| Iraq, Palestine, Jordan| British Mandate| Arabia| Became independent under a native dynasty| Regained under Treaty of Lausanne: 1. Adrianople 2. Eastern Thrace 3. Smyrna 4. Anatolia 5. Straits 6. Constantinople 7. Aegean Islands 8. Kurdistan 9. Armenia (Turks commanded to produce a safe national home) Neuilly Territorial Strumnitza| Yugoslavia| West Thrace, Aegean Islands| Greece| MilitaryEconomic/Reparations -Army limited to 20,000-90 million pounds to be paid over 38 years but was reduced League of Nations League of Nations Aim: to prevent war/preserve peace and promote international cooperation through collective security (=all members act together to punish any aggressive nation through diplomatic, economic and military sanctions) -to promote disarmament and end secret diplomacy -to improve the quality of life of people around the world -to ensu re economic and social justice Assembly -met annually -contained representatives of all the member states, each of which had one vote -function was to decide general policy; decisions had to be unanimous -it was the debating chamber for the nations and decided on the admission of new members and also the League’s budget Council a smaller body, which met more often, at least 3 times a year -Contained 4 permanent members – Britain, France, Italy, Japan -4 elected members chosen by Assembly for 3 years (increased to 9 by 1926) -function was to deal with specific political disputes as they arose; decisions had to be unanimous Secretariat -looked after all the paperwork so that the decisions of the League could be carried out -provided statistical and information services and translation facilities -the first Secretary-General of the League, Sir Eric Drummond, had a largely successful aim of building up a reliable body of civil servants who owed their main loyalty not natio nally, but internationally Permanent Court of International Justice based at Hague in Holland; consisted of 15 judges of different nationalities -dealt with legal disputes instead of political ones -covered all matters referred to it, especially those relating to the interpretation of international treaties and conventions -submission of disputes to the Court was voluntary Specialised Agencies International Labour Organisation -Objective: to secure economic and social justice -aimed to fix maximum working days and weeks, recommend appropriate wages for workers, lay down minimum entitlements for sickness, injury and old-age benefit and freedom for trade unions -all members of the League were members, and other willing states, like USA, could join Colonies and Mandates Commission Covenant established the Mandate system for former Turkish and German colonies; Allies saw themselves bound by the 5th of Wilson’s 14 points -resulted in a series of trusteeships whereby the territorie s were not annexed, but were held in trust by the victors under the supervision of LoN -each mandatory had to submit annually to the Commission an account of its stewardship -3 different types of mandates * Type A: lands that appeared most ready for future independence, e. g. Iraq * Type B: lands that were more backward, reckoned that 50 years would be needed before the mandate could be ended * Type C: lands that were backward or isolated with no real prospect of independence Refugees Committee originally the High Commission of Refugees to deal with Russian and Armenian refugees displaced by the war -became the Nansen Office in 1930 under the direction of Fridtjof Nansen -solved the problems of thousands of POWs marooned in Russia at the end of the war; half a million were returned home -after 1933, help was given to thousands fleeing Nazi persecution in Germany Disarmament Commission -made no progress in the near impossible task of persuading members states to reduce armaments, tho ugh they had all promised to do so when they agreed to the Covenant Work of the League in 1920s Aaland Islands (1920) Parties Involved: Finland and Sweden Details: -Aaland Islanders wanted to be part of Sweden because of their cultural ties Action taken by LoN: -set up commission to investigate -recommend that Aaland remain part of Finland -proposed that Swedish culture be safeguarded Evaluation: -successful as a lasting solution due to acceptance from both parties Vilna (1920-1923) Parties Involved: Poland and Lithuania Details: both countries claimed the town of Vilna, the capital of Lithuania which had a majority Polish population Action taken by LoN: -negotiated an armistice but was broken by Polish Army which seized Vilna -commission was set up to recommend new border but was rejected -Conference of Ambassadors stepped in and proposed that Vilna be given to Poland Evaluation: -League played significant role, but was overshadowed by CoA, and its weakness when faced with Polish s eizure of Vilna by force had been obvious Upper Silesia (1921) Parties Involved: Germany and Poland Details: each claimed Upper Silesia Action taken by LoN: -set up commission to investigate -plebiscite held majority wanted to return to Germany -LoN awarded most of the area to Germany, but left an important industrial district in Poland Evaluation: -successful in upholding self-determination; did not result in further dispute Corfu (1923) Parties Involved: Albania, Greece and Italy Details: -frontier between Albania and Greece undecided by CA -Italian ambassador, General Tellini was murdered in northern Greece -Mussolini sent an ultimatum to Greece demanding an apology, punishment of culprits and compensation of 50m lira -Greek rejection led to Italian bombardment and occupation of Corfu -Italy thus broke the League Covenant Action taken by LoN: came up with a reasonable scheme; Greeks were to place 50m lire in a Swiss bank pending an enquiry into the murders, and Greeks accepted -h owever, LoN was overruled by CoA; Italians claimed that League had no right to consider the question at all, as it was the agents of the CoA that had been murdered -after Italy threatened to leave LoN, League Council passed the responsibility to CoA -plan was rapidly altered, and Greek money was transferred to Italy Evaluation: -League had allowed the decision to be taken from its hands; its plan was perverted by CoA, where Italian influence was strong -Italian attack, despite many individual condemnations, had not been officially branded as aggression -although war was averted, a Great Power had bullied a small nation -members of the League did not want to risk war however, Mussolini was shaken by the fierceness of the universal attacks on his actions in the Assembly, and was less threatening Greek-Bulgarian Border Dispute (1925) Parties Involved: Greece, Bulgaria Details: -fighting in October 1925 between Bulgarians and Greeks on their border -Bulgaria appealed for help as it had been severely limited by Treaty of Neuilly; it managed to take a few metres of Greek territory, while the Greeks advanced over 5km on a wide front Action taken by LoN: -Council was summoned to a special meeting in Paris; sent neutral officers for negotiations -League threatened economic boycott backed up by a naval ‘demonstration’; Greeks gave way Evaluation: prevention of a Greek-Bulgarian war, which could have spread, was a triumph for the League, which was firm and decisive during this crisis -however, it was noted that this was due to the states involved being minor powers, no Great Power was involved on either side, and the British and French governments had been willing to back the Council’s attitude Northern Chaco Dispute (1928-1936) Parties Involved: Bolivia, Paraguay Details: -Both Bolivia and Paraguay claimed northern Chaco, a huge circle of territory, 400km across between them -minor skirmishes broke out frequently; in 1928 and again in 1932 these turn ed into full-scale war Action taken by LoN: -commission was sent to investigate; produced blueprint for disentanglement and solution -Paraguay refused to accept, as they were winning at the time -imposed arms embargo on both countries, resulted in Paraguay withdrawing from LoN -war eventually petered out with both states exhausted; signed a peace treaty based on League’s plan Evaluation: League could have taken action to impose peace on the countries had its members threatened to use force -situation was clouded by other parties, like other South American countries and US -dispute made many reflect how much more effective LoN would be if US was a member Work of the League in the 1930s Manchuria (1931) Parties Involved: Japan, China Details: -Japan invaded Manchuria and China appealed to the League Action taken by LoN: -commission under Lord Lytton concluded that both sides were at fault and Machuria should be governed by the League -Japan rejected this and withdrew from the L eague in March 1933 -economic and military sanctions were not applied as Britain and France were economically weak and did not want to risk war with Japan, which they were ill-equipped to win Evaluation: Japan successfully defied the League whose prestige was damaged but not fatally -League was seen to be weak as it was unable to stick to its main ideals of collective security against aggressive powers such as Japan -well-being of various League members was seen to be more important than world peace Leticia (1932-1934) Parties Involved: Peru, Colombia Details: -Peruvian soldiers seized Leticia in 1932 -it was important to Colombia as it was her only direct outlet to the Amazon River -Colombia tried to retake Leticia but the Peruvians extended their invasion using aircraft -Colombia then appealed to the League Action taken by LoN: -the League decided in favour of Colombia and persuaded the Peruvians to withdraw -Leticia was under the League for a year and in 1934, was peacefully retu rned to Colombia Evaluation: although it was seen to be a success as collective security was enforced, the League was not truly tested as both countries were minor powers and could not hold their own against bigger members of the world order World Disarmament Conference (1932-1934) Parties Involved: Member states of the League Details: -was a grave disappointment -Germany asked for equality of disarmament with France, but France demanded it to be postponed for 8 years -Hitler used France’s attitude to withdraw Germany from the conference and later from the League in 1933 -In that year, France completed the building of the Maginot Line which fortified her eastern frontier showed that France was rearming instead of disarming Evaluation: Disarmament failed as the powers wanted security over equality of armaments -Britain and France were also militarily weak and were afraid of the USSR and Italy Abyssinia (1935) Parties Involved: Italy, Abyssinia Details: -Italy invaded Abyssinia Action taken by LoN: -the League condemned Italy and introduced economic sanctions, but they were not applied to coal, steel and oil -the sanctions were half-hearted and were soon abandoned as they did not want to antagonize Mussolini to keep him from allying with Hitler Evaluation: -was a complete failure of the League as they were seen to be weak since they backed down from aggressors -Mussolini was annoyed by the sanctions anyway and drew closer to Hitler -small states lost all faith in the LoN -Hitler was encouraged by incompetence of LoN to break ToV LoN was never taken seriously again after 1935 Mussolini Mussolini Fascism = a system of government with centralised authority under a dictator -usually involves terror, censorship, nationalism Rise of Mussolini Cumulative (Long term) Disappointment at ToV -Italy was originally a member of the Central Powers -Allies promised Italy Trentino, South Tyrol, Istria, Trieste, part of Dalmatia, Adalia, some Aegean islands and a protector ate over Albania -Italy given first 4, however, others were allocated to other states, mainly Yugoslavia, with Albania becoming independent -led to Italians feeling cheated as they had fought during WWI and lost close to 700,000 men Fiume Incident whilst not promised Fiume, Italians had failed to capture it during WWI -d’Annunzio and his supporters seized Fiume and held it against the Yugoslavs for 15 months -PM Giovanni Giolitti decided that the Government’s authority should be restored and sent the Army to remove d’Annunzio and his supporters -angered the people as d’Annunzio was regarded a national hero Post-war Economic problems -effects of war on Italy were disastrous -Italy was heavily in debt as it had borrowed heavily from USA -cost of living increased by 5 times due to fall in value of the lira (5 lira to 1 USD in 1914 to 28 lira to 1 USD in 1921) -massive unemployment * Post-war cut backs * Returning servicemen Dissatisfaction at the parliamenta ry system -votes for all men and proportional representation were introduced for 1919 elections -problems of proportional representation: Large number of political points * 9 parties from across the political spectrum * No clean majority – coalition governments and 5 cabinets with shaky majorities * No consistent policies * System seemed to prevent decisive government Contributory (Short term) Strikes of 1919-1920 -industrialisation of Italy led to development of a strong socialist party and trade unions -organised a wave of strikes to protest at Italy’s problems Popularity of Fascists -provided the illusion of strength when Italians were disillusioned with democracy -initially anti-monarchy, anti-church and anti-big-business -poor results in 1919 elections led to changes -Pro-big-business: Mussolini came out as the defender of private enterprise and party * Led to financial support from the big businesses * Formation of communist party in Jan 1921 led to more support -Supported the church: * Made concillatory speech about Roman Catholic Church * Church saw Mussolini as a good anti-communist weapon -dropped republicanism (election of head of state) * King looked favourably upon Mussolini thereafter Ineffective Opposition to Fascists -anti-fascist groups failed to cooperate -communists refused to cooperate with the socialists and vice versa; both groups were also opposed to the nationalists -PM Giolitti wanted the support of the Fascists after the 1921 elections 1921 elections – Fascists only won 35 seats versus 123 won by socialist -socialists refused to cooperate with nationalists -thus allow Fascists to get into power Critical (triggers) Attempted General Strike -socialists called for general strike in 1922 -Fascists claimed that if the government was unable to control the strike, it would do so; undermined authority of government -socialist strike ended by itself due to lack of support -Mussolini claimed credit and made it look as if fa scists stopped it March on Rome -Fascists felt confident enough to stage March on Rome -about 50 000 black shirts converged on the capital while others occupied important towns in the North government wanted to resist, but were overruled by the King -chaos created by governmental crisis, fascist threat and the King’s move created confusion; Italians saw this as further evidence of the government’s inability to rule Actions of the King -King Victor Emmanuel II refused to declare a state of emergency -he instead invited Mussolini to form a new government -Fascists benefitted from the fear and confusion; fostered the myth that they had seized power in a heroic struggle, by seizing many key communication facilities -resulted in widespread overestimation of the fascists’ ability to seize power -King’s role was crucial as he had decided not to use the army to stop the blackshirts the march was a bluff but it succeeded * Feared for a long civil war if the Army f ailed to crush Fascists quickly * Feared he would be forced to step down by nationalists * Generals led him to believe that government forces were not strong enough to put down the revolt; appraisal of the situation was not well-informed The Fascist State Political Accerbo Law (Nov 1923) -changed the rules of the general elections -party which got the most votes in the election would be given two-thirds of the seats in parliament -Apr 1924 elections – Fascists and supporters gained 404 seats as opposed to 107 seats for their opponents -destroyed democracy in ItalyUse of Violence and Intimidation -1923—Fascist Blackshirts were legalized to become the National State Voluntary Militia (MSVN) -1924—use of violence and intimidation to develop Italian government on fascist lines Only Fascist Party was allowed -Opponents of the regime were exiled or murdered -1927—OVRA, secret police Mussolini used to hunt down political enemies, placed them in concentration cam ps on islands off Italian coast -however, when Mussolini felt more secure, the violence was reduced Matteoti Crisis -Mussolini was paralysed by indecision -lost support among fascists and there was widespread parliamentary boycott -eroded Mussolini’s position in Jan 1925 Mussolini announced he was assuming dictatorial powers -only his supporters in Parliament; King presented no threat -signaled the demise of any pretense to democratic rule, ushering end of free speech, free press and toleration of opposition -fascist militia was mobilized political parties were closed down and outlawed, newspapers came under fascist control -desertion of fascists during Crisis led to Mussolini purging the fascist party, to wipe out any independence among them; had to swear oaths of allegiance Constitutional Changes -1925—Prime Minister (Mussolini) was responsible only to the King and not to the parliament -1926—PM could rule by decree which meant that new laws passed did not nee d to be discussed by Parliament -1926—electorate reduced from 10 million to 3 million -all decisions taken by Fascist Grand Council which did as Mussolini told -Mussolini was Il Duce and now had dictatorial powers -Changes in local government: * Elected town councils and mayors were abolished * Towns were run by officials appointed from Rome Economic Employment policies promoted cooperation between employers to end class warfare in a â€Å"Corporate State† -only fascist-controlled unions had the right to negotiate for workers and both unions and employers’ associations were organized into corporations and were expected to work together to settle disputes -strikes were banned -1934—22 separate corporations dealing with separate industries -Mussolini hoped to control workers to direct production and the economy -compensation and benefits – free Sundays, annual holidays with pay, social security, sports and theatre facilities and cheap tours and holid ays Industrial and Agricultural Policies -drive for autarky (self-sufficiency) industry was encouraged with government subsidies – led to doubling of steel production by 1930(was still low compared to other countries), 1937 production of hydro-electric power doubled -Battle for Wheat (1925): Get more farmers to grow wheat so that Italy would not have to spend money importing it; increased wheat production led to wheat import reduced by 75% extra land used led to output of other crops going down -Battle for Land (1926): Removal of wasteland, included draining marshes and swamps, ploughing bare hillsides, clearing woodlands and improving irrigation to increase agricultural production; greatest effort put into draining the Pontine Marshes, a huge mosquito-infested swamp near Rome -Public Works Programme: To reduce unemployment through building of motorways, bridges, blocks of flats, railway stations etc. Battle for Lira (1926): Mussolini revalued the lira far too high, at 90 to the sterling pound instead of 150 in an attempt to show Italy had a strong currency, led to reduced orders as Italian exports were more expensive on the world market workers suffered wage reductions Social Censorship -strict press censorship was enforced -anti-fascist newspapers and magazines were banned -editors were replaced by fascist supporters -radio, films and theatre controlled the same way Education supervised -all education was closely supervised -teachers had to wear uniforms and new textbooks were written to glorify the fascist system -children and teenagers forced to join government youth organisations -indoctrination to obey Il Duce and war was glorified -Total obedience to authority â€Å"Believe, obey, fight! † Understanding with the Pope -papacy had been hostile to the Italian state -initially sympathetic to Mussolini in 1922 Pope Pius XI growingly disapproved of totalitarianism of the Fascists -Mussolini played on fear of Communism by Vatican and signed the L ateran Treaty of 1929 which recognized the Vatican City as a sovereign state and paid the Pope a large sum of money as compensation for all his losses -payment in the form of state bonds Church had vested economic interest in the regime needed to ensure stability and support -Treaty also recognized Catholicism as the official state religion and made religious instruction compulsory in all schools -Vatican recognized the kingdom of Italy Hitler Hitler Weimar Republic/Rise of Hitler Constitution of Weimar Republic 4 August 1919 The constitution established: * A federal government of upper and lower houses * A German republic under a president * The principle that political power ‘derives from the people’ The President: * Was directly elected by the people for a seven-year term * Had the power to appoint/dismiss the chancellor and ministers * Was commander-in-chief of the armed forces * Was given emergency powers under article 48 of the constitution to suspend parliament a nd rule by decree The Parliament: consisted of two houses * Reichsrat: Upper House which had 66 seats representing the states in the German federation * Reichstag: Lower House; the chancellor formed the government in the Reichstag, with 421 deputies, each party was allocated seats in the Reichstag according to their proportion of the total vote -weakness of proportional representation -no one party gained an absolute majority -allowed ‘splinter’ parties, some with extremist policies to gain at least some seats -led to instability in the parliament for a coalition made up of a number of parties was necessary to form a government Events of Weimar Republic Treaty of Versailles (1919)Aim: to signify surrender of Germany and acceptance of war guilt * was humiliating and unpopular, and led Germans to see the Weimar government as working with the enemy * arms limitations, reparations and war guilt clause in ToV being accept by the Weimar government led to it being associated w ith defeat and dishonor Outcome: Weimar started on a weak footing, with little respect for politicians, as Germany was rooted in militaristic tradition with strong leaders like Bismarck Spartacist Rising (1919) Aim: to take over the government inspired by communist revolution in Russia * was a sign of weakness of the Weimar government as it had to depend on private forces, in this case the Freikorps, which it did not itself control to defeat the communists Kapp Putsch (1920) * Right-wing groups tried to seize power * Revealed the chaotic situation * Rebels were also not punished duly * Revealed weakness of Weimar and led to disillusionment with democracy Ruhr Invasion (1923) * Due to German inability to pay reparations Paralysis of Ruhr industry and government’s determination to maintain strike pay and other benefits in retaliation to the French led to hyperinflation * Suffering by the people, poor economic management and inability to deter the French led them to think that W eimar was weak * Public opinion swung in favour of right wing extremists like the Nazis Munich Putsch (1923) Aim: to overthrow the government and seize power Outcome: Evidence of groups wanting to overthrow government showed lack of support from people and even authorities (e. g. judges during Hitler’s trial) as they had little faith in democracy Golden Years (1924-1929) * Relatively stable period led by Gustav Streseman who: * Introduced new currency (retenmark) and called off strikes in Ruhr, as he thought it had caused a severe strain on German economy and led to great political instability * Signed Dawes and Young Plan Locarno Treaties and Kellogg Briand Pact (world’s major nations renounced war as an instrument of national policy) * Restored diplomatic status of Germany by signing above pacts as they gained the goodwill of Western Powers allowed Germany to be admitted into LoN with a permanent seat in the Council Outcome: Relatively stable period due to good leade rship, financial help from the US and reparations being decreased, however, Germany’s prosperity was reliant on US loans to sustain itself Great Depression * World economic crisis due to Wall Street Crash * US seized all the loans and called in short term loans * Plunged German economy into recession again * Unemployment hit 6million Outcome: Government came under great criticism for lack of decisive action Working class sour about unemployment and cutting back of benefits Government on verge of collapse as people gravitated to alternative political groups Nazi Party 1914-1918| WWI—Hitler was a corporal, war developed political ideas later popularized by Nazis e. g. iktat/ repudiate ToV/ ‘ stab in the back’ theory| 1919| Hitler joined German Workers Party in Munich where he was employed by the army to turn soldiers against pacifist democratic ideas; initially small and ineffective, later merged with another and renamed Nazi Party| 1920| Under Hitlerâ€℠¢s leadership, party became more effective:-oratory skills-charisma-fund-raising ability-Rohm instructed to reorganize SA; by 1923, had an organized, private armyWithout Hitler, the Nazis would have been one of dozens of small, disintegrating political parties| 1923| Munich Putsch lessons learned-seize power legally in future-Hitler now a figure of national renown, Nazi ideas publicized| 1924-1929| With economic stability under Stresemanm Nazis’ growth was stunted| 1930| Reichstag elections, Chancellor Bruning headed unstable coalition-invited Hitler to join; declined as uninterested in sharing power| Mar 1932| -elections for President Hitler stood as candidate huge national exposure and publicity for Nazi ideas; polled credibly| Jul 1932| Chancellor von Papen replaced Bruning in May, but coalition became increasingly unstable so elections were called – Nazis were single largest party but Hitler refused invitation to join coalition government| Nov 1932| 196 seats showe d decreasing Nazi popularity as depression eased; coalition government became increasingly unworkable so Hindenburg appointed Schleicher as Chancellor in December; unable to get Reichstag to work with him so Hitler was appointed as Chancellor due to political intrigue by mainly Papen and Schleicher| Nazi beliefs Hitler knew that the Germans were looking for someone to blame for their troubles so he gave them plenty of enemies * For example, the ‘stab in the back’ theory claimed that the German army had never been defeated but had been let down by Jews and communists at home; those who signed the truce were the ‘November Criminals’ * However, this was untrue as it was General Ludendorff who had told the civilians that they must sign a peace treaty as the army could no longer defend Germany * Hitler also blamed ToV for most of Germany’s troubles * He claimed it was an unfair dictated peace which had taken much land from Germany * Hitler’s promis e to ignore the Versailles settlement if he came to power impressed young officers and iron and steel manufacturers, who had much to gain from a rearmed Germany * Demand for Anschluss was supported by many Germans * Denuciated democracy as weak and ineffective pleased many as well * His promise of a few socialist measures gained him many working-class votes * Most importantly, he offered Germans a simple solution; everything would be all right if the Jews were deprived of all money and power, or the communists crushed, or the ‘November criminals’ hanged, or that Germany just had to break ToV to become great again Rapid Growth of Nazis * From 1920-1923, the Nazi party saw rapid growth The party adopted its distinctive characteristics like the emblem and salute, and had a newspaper where Hitler denounced the ToV * Htler also organized the SA to protect the Nazi meetings and disrupt the meetings of other parties Munich Putsch * The French occupation of Ruhr allowed the Naz is to gain new and increased strength by denouncing the ToV * On 8 November 1923, after only 4 years in politics, Hitler attempted a revolution, inspired by the fascists’ March on Rome the year before * However, Hitler had not made sure of the active support of the army, and he had forgotten that he was unknown outside of Bavaria, whereas Mussolini had been a national figure * Hitler was arrested and his party banned * However, many government officials had been in sympathy with him *His exploits at the trials received much publicity, helping him to become well-known outside Germany * He was sentenced the 5 years in prison and allowed parole * During this time, he laid down Nazi ideas in the book Mein Kampf * He also decided that the Nazis needed to gain power through legal means Golden Years under Streseman * Gustav Streseman intended to make Germany great again through peaceful means * Through the Dawes plan, and issuing of a new currency, Germany enjoyed a period of prospe rity * The number of Nazis in the Reichstag dropped from 32 in May 1924 to 14 in December 1924 * Despite poor election results, the Nazi Party showed a sturdy growth during these years * Party membership increased from 27000 to 178000 It also began to have financial support from wealthy industrialists who saw that Nazis were anti-socialist and anti-communist * Hitler also strengthened his control of the party by forming his own bodyguard, the SS Great Depression, Nazi mass support * Weimar government failed to solve any grave economic problems of the day: mass unemployment, inflation and industrial slump * Faced with economic hardship, Germans lost any faith they had in the democratic government * Middle class and working class were the most discontented as they had been ruined by 2 economic collapses within 6 years * Turned to 2 extreme parties for remedies, Nazis and Communists * July 1932 – Nazis won 230 seats, becoming largest party in Reichstag Hitler becomes Chancellor November 1932 – Nazi votes dip, while Communist votes rise alarms influential businessmen and landlords; conservative Nationalists decided that their cause could be served by supporting Hitler * von Paper made a bargain with Hitler, where Hitler would be chancellor and von Papen be made vice-chancellor; Hindenburg agreed as despite his contempt for Hitler, the Nazis seemed to be the only well-supported right-wing party which could protect Germany from communism Reasons for Nazi Success 1. Lack of democratic tradition Weimar Republic was not trusted or respected by the people 2. Weimar failed in both domestic and foreign affairs: a. ToV b. failure of Streseman to remove burden of reparations c. failure to recover lost territories d. little political stability due to coups from extreme right and left e. constitution encouraged formation of too many political parties which led to weak and unstable government 3. Onset of GD led to unemployment; as workers turned to communists, la ndowners, industrialists, middle class and conservative right-wing politicians turned to support Nazis 4.Hitler was an able leader, who convinced Germans he was a man of action and ideals; Nazi programme promised everything to everybody 5. Like the Italian government, the German government lacked confidence to rule the country in times of crisis Consolidation of Hitler’s dictatorship Reichstag Fire -on 27 February 1933, the Reichstag building was burned down and the communists were falsely accused of using the fire as a signal for communist insurrection -under the guise of defending the country from a communist revolution, Hitler asked for emergency powers -suspended civil liberties; Hitler used this to arrest 5000 communists -Hitler banned communist and socialist newspapers and made use of radio stations to broadcast Nazi propaganda Enabling Act despite Nazi influence on the votes, they did not fare well in the elections and only barely obtained a majority with the aid of th e Nationalists -Hitler wanted to transfer all legislative power of the Reichstag to himself, but any change in constitution required a two-thirds majority in the Reichstag -Hitler arrested or excluded 81 communist deputies, and bribed the nationalists and centrists -thus, the Nazis outvoted the social democrats by 444 to 94 which gave Hitler unlimited power -Hitler could draft and pass any laws without the Reichstag -the German constitution was destroyed Elimination of Internal Rivals (Night of the Long Knives) -dealt with political rivals in the party -Ernst Rohm differed from Hitler on 3 important issues: 1. Rohm thought that the SA helped bring the Nazis to power, so Hitler should reward them with government jobs. 2. Rohm wanted the SA and army to be merged 3.Rohm was interested in the socialist aspect of the party’s programme and wanted Hitler to confiscate the property of wealthy people in Germany -Rohm commanded 2m SA troopers, and thus constituted a great threat to Hit ler’s political position -On June 30 1934, many SA leaders as well as other political opponents were killed such as Strasser and Scleicher -Hitler achieve party solidarity Hitler becoming President -Hindenburg died in Aug 1934 -Hitler announced that he would combine in himself the offices of President and Chancellor -Thus, his personal dictatorship was now complete and the Third Reich was officially proclaimed Nazi Germany Political Policies| Social Policies| Economic Policies| Banned all political parties * Created a police state; prevented any opposition to the regime by sending political opponents to concentration camps * Trade unions were abolished, as they were a likely source of resistance, replaced by the German Labour Front; employees were also forbidden to strike| * Education system was closely controlled so that children could be indoctrinated with Nazi ideals; textbooks were rewritten to support Nazi opinions * Was supplemented by youth organisations which aimed to destroy traditional bonds such as loyalty to the family and obey the Fuhrer instead * Dr Joseph Goebbels controlled the media; ensured that opinions fit the Nazi system and thus moulded public opinion and ensured mass support * Wanted to bring the Catholic and Protestant churches under Nazi control * signed concordat with Pope in which Church recognized the regime and renounced all activity aside from purely religious acts in Germany, while Hitler guaranteed the Church of its historic rights, but the promise was soon broken; the Catholics offered serious resistance to Nazi persecution from 1937 * Protestant churches were united under a Reich church which preached Nazi ideals; Protestants which did not follow the new eachings were sent to concentration camps * Nazis encouraged racially pure couples to have more children as birth rate was declining, gained support of mothers who felt that they were contributing; those considered undesirable were discouraged from having children, and some were forcibly sterilized, marriages between Aryans and Jews were also banned| Aims: 1) To reduce unemployment 2) Build Germany’s weapons industry 3) Achieve economic self-sufficiencyEmployment-public works programmes-larger bureaucracy-purge of Jews and anti-Nazis -rearmament Industrial/Economic production-German army was expanded; conscription introduced; gave profitable deals to businessmen, who in turn supported Nazis Autarky-encouraged farmers to increase agricultural yields-telling industrialists what to produce depending on needs However, despite numbers showing that unemployment had been solved, these figures hid certain facts; women and Jews were ousted out of jobs to create vacancies and they were not counted as unemployedrearmament was also again ToV| 1930| Road to War Road to WarGreat Depression continues (1929-approximately mid 1930s)War Aggressive Foreign Policy Rise of Militarism Rise of extremist parties and regimes| | London Naval Conference – redu ction in naval build-up (role of League)| 1931| Mukden Incident, Invasion of Manchuria * Japan had vested economic interest in Manchuria; stationed the Kwantung army in Manchuria to protect its assets gained by wars with China * However, its control of Manchuria was threatened when Chiang Kai-shek took over and set up the National Government * They were worried that the Manchurian warlord, Zhang Zuolin would gang up with Chiang to oppose their domination of Manchuria * Mukden Incident: assassinated Zhang by dynamiting his train * Showed increasing Japanse militarism and weakening Japanese democracy * Strengthened Chinese nationalism as Zhang Xueling wanted vengeance * Great Depression prompted them to take more serious action; foreign conquest would guarantee more trade, more raw materials and more jobs start in Manchuria, since Kwantung Army was in place * 18 September 1931: Kwantung Army occupied town of Shenyang, claiming that Chinese soldiers had tried to blow up the South Manch urian railway * Despite protests by LoN, Japanese soldiers went on to occupy the rest of Manchuria| 1932| Manchukuo established * Japan declared Manchuria independent and put Emperor Puyi on the throne, but he was a figurehead, and the real rulers were officers of the Kwantung Army * Lytton report condemned Japanese invasion and suggested possibility of separate state in Manchuria| | World Disarmament Conference| 933| Japan leave League * League voted on Lytton report; Japanese delegation left the Assembly and later leaves League * League was seen to be powerless when faced with opposition of a great power * Nothing could be done to prevent Japan’s withdrawal or to force the Japanese to accept the Report * Japan had set an example which Hitler and Mussolini were to follow| | Hitler becomes Chancellor * Hitler’s foreign policy was aggressive * Preached German world domination, overthrowing of ToV and conquering living space which ultimately involved the use of force and war| | Germany leaves League and WDC * Hitler openly rejected disarmament clause * No longer bound by LoN and was free to pursue rearmament * Increase possibility of Germany and Japan using force as a foreign policy tool * Countries also started rearming heightening chances of war| 1934| Poland and Germany sign non-aggression pact * Settled previous disputes over Danzig and territorial boundaries, and was seen by Britain and France as Hitler’s first step to building diplomatic relations * Hitler’s bluff worked – Britain and France got a false sense of security and pursued appeasement policy * Polish neutrality was also assured if Germany annexed Austria and Czechoslovakia| | Geneva Conference collapses| Attempted Anschluss * ToV forbade Austria’s union with Germany * In 1934, Austrian Nazis assassinated the Chancellor and asked for German help * The new chancellor appealed to Mussolini, who did not want a strong Austria-Germany on his frontier * Italian troops were rushed to Brenner Pass and Hitler called of his plans * Peace was maintained only by threat of force and Mussolini’s dislike of Hitler * Hitler’s aggressive foreign policy was revealed * Revealed need to work with Italy| 1935| Saar plebiscite – voted to return to Germany * Rich in coalfields and other industries helped German rearmament * Boosted Hitler’s confidence in xpanding the Third Reich announced conscription and rearmament| | German rearmament – Hitler announces conscription * Was not seen as an aggressive move but rather an economic policy to rebuild Germany’s shattered economy * 1st successful breach of ToV * Vital step towards preparation for war and world domination| | Stresa Front * Joint effort by Britain, France and Italy to resist attempt to revise ToV and issued strong protests at Hitler’s actions to breach ToV * Fact that these powers came together showed that the League was ineffective * Did not last due to Anglo-German naval agreement showing British condoning German rearmament and Italian aggression through Abyssinia invasion| | Anglo-German Naval Agreement * Made sure that Germany did not become stronger than Britain * Ensure a strong Germany to keep communism at bay; Hitler was firmly anti-communist * Treaty was a breach of ToV; showed hollowness of the Front * Diplomatic triumph for Hitler as Britain recognized German right to rearm| | Italian invasion of Abyssinia * Showed weakness of LoN; no longer an effective peacekeeping organization * Stresa Front was weakened as Italy drew closer to Germany * Hitler was more confident of using force to achieve his foreign policy aims as Britain and France could be seen to be unwilling to resist aggression| 1936| Hitler reoccupies the Rhineland * Hitler took a gamble as German forces were outnumbered by better-armed French troops * Successful reoccupation and remilitarization due to lack of British and French action; the region was descr ibed as only his own backyard and neither country were prepared for war * Britain and France were occupied with Abyssinia * Hitler’s confidence to use force was boosted| | Spanish Civil War begins * Valuable practice for troops and air crew e. g.German Luftwaffe air raids in Madrid and Guernica * Britain was horrified with the destructive power of the air force and was determined not to intervene as Spain was remote * Due to appeasement policy, Hitler was convinced that Britain and France would not act against aggression * Strengthened German-Italian alliance, fostered closer ties| | Rome-Berlin Axis * Formalized political and military relations form Abyssinia invasion which had German support and Spanish civil war| | Anti-Comintern Pact * United front to stand up against and destroy communism between Italy, Germany and Japan * Closer relations between aggressive nations who were no longer in LoN * Led to growing confidence| 1937| Second Sino-Japanese War begins * Beginning o f Japanese expansion into Asia through aggression * War in China * Will later expand to SEA * Purely instigated by Japanese military in China and was condemned by democratic government * Showed that military held the most power * LoN failure to act gave Japan the impression that US would also do nothing; however, trade embargo was impose| | Italy joins Anti-Comintern Pact| 938| Anschluss * Seyss-Inquart led an Austrian Nazi attempt to seize power, which was prevented by Chancellor Schuschnigg * Hitler threatened war unless Schuschnigg was made Minister of the Interior * Plebiscite was proposed to see if Austrians wanted Anschluss * Fearing negative results, Hitler rushed troops to the border, threatening an invasion and forcing Schuschnigg to resign, resulting in Seyss-Inquart becoming Chancellor * Hitler was invited to occupy Austria and ward off communist threat, and Austria became a province of Germany on 14 March * While a plebiscite showed that 99% of Austrians favoured the uni on, the remaining opposition was crushed * Hitler’s act of expansion/aggression went unchecked * Appeasement policy by Britain and France increased the likelihood of further aggression| | Czechoslovakia: Munich Conference and Czechoslovakian Crisis * Another case where expansionism was achieved without bloodshed * Czechoslovakia lost 70% of her heavy industry and all her military fortifications * Provided Germany with mineral deposits and heavy industry boosted rearmament efforts * Hitler would be emboldened to retrieve all lost territory under ToV and even take on more land as part of his scheme to achieve world domination| 1939| Memel reclaimed by Germany * Hitler was determined to restore all lost territory under ToV| | Germany makes demands on Poland| | Britain and France guarantee Poland’s safety| | Italy invades Albania * Revealed Italy’s ambition for empire and power * Increasingly felt like he paled in comparison to Hitler * Thus, he was pressured to kee p up – later declared war on Britain and France in 1940s to gain spoils of war| | Pact of Steel * Formalized military cooperation and alliance * Pledged to assist each other if one became involved in a military conflict * Mussolini’s close alignment is reflective of his esire not to lose out in territorial gains * An attest to Hitler’s plans to invade Europe * Doom for Italy that could not match Germany’s military might as Hitler could not keep his end of bargain (to wait 3 years as Italy prepared for war)| | Nazi-Soviet Pact * Germany would not have to fight on 2 fronts as in WWI * Germany would conquer all of Western Europe and then strike Eastern Europe when lest expected * Bought time for USSR to build up its military * Without this pact, Germany would not have invaded Poland * Allowed Britain and France to see that Hitler was a trickster| | Poland invaded; beginning of war in Europe| I. The Russian Revolutions: Fall of the monarchy & the provisional government The Russian Revolutions: Fall of the monarchy & the provisional government February 1917 Revolution i. Causes of the Revolution Numerous defeats in World War I and crucial losses in important battles * Caused troops & police to mutiny – left no one to defend the autocracy * War revealed the incompetent & corrupt organisation and the shortage of equipment * Tsar had also appointed himself Supreme Commander of the Russian Army, but made tactical blunders and, on the whole, was unable to inspire the troops * Army morale dwindled due to consecutive defeats in important areas * People could now blame the Tsar for Russia’s decline * Thus, the Tsar’s incompetent leadership of the war resulted in numerous defeats, loss of lands, and a horrendous death toll, leading the army to rise up against the government to overthrow it to end the war * Famine and poverty due to the state of the Russian economy, which had been ravaged by war * Wages could not keep up with the rise in prices of food due to inflation and the depreciation of the Russian rouble * Caused many people queuing for food to be turned away, creating dissatisfaction among the Russians, especially among the peasants * Tsar proved to be hopelessly inadequate at dealing with the economic problems the war created, and the suffering of the people eventually caused them to rise up against him in a bid for a better life * Poor governance and repressive, autocratic rule Tsar’s failure to keep promises such as land reforms * Duma kept changing – Russia had 4 Dumas between 1905 to 1917 alone, which resulted in the situation whereby new-and-improved policies were unable to be implemented * All these hence led to greater hostility against the Tsar * Workers & soldiers later set up the Petrograd Soviet, a council of workers & soldiers taking control of the city * Tsar was eventually persuaded and forced to abdicate by his generals * Fall of autocratic government ii. Outcome of the February Revolution * A provisional government was set up by the Duma, headed by Prince Lvov as Prime Minister * Petrograd Soviet & the workers’ councils rivaled the provisional government’s right to rule and insisted on its prerogative to run the government II. October 1917 Revolution iii. Problems & Failures of the Provisional Government (PG) * Continuation of WWI Kerensky’s June offensive was a disastrous failure * Lost the support of the Russian people, who thought the war was draining precious resources * Caused the collapse of army morale & discipline * Hundreds of thousands of troops deserted the army and abandoned the front lines * Dual power existed as the PG was challenged by the power held by the Petrograd Soviets, who tried to rule the city and commanded all the soldiers, leaving the PG without any military backup * The Petrograd Soviet was more popular amongst the people, and later the even the Army lent its support to them * PG also depended on the Petrograd Soviet for its legitimacy * Hence, when the Petrograd Soviet ordered all soldiers to obey only the Soviet, it meant that in the last resort, the PG could not rely on the support of the Army * PG delayed elections promised earlier, leading to loss of support * PG had assumed power, but had not been officially elected by the people of Russia * Claimed it would hold elections after the war as the troops would have returned and then be eligible to vote after fighting * However people did not elieve in it and felt that it was too long a duration to wait before the war ended as no one knew when the war would end * Promise of elections were hence not carried out, adding to unpopularity * Since they had not been voted in, the PG also had no legal power to give land away or start land reforms for the benefit of the peasants, who had earlier demanded land and sought the approval of the PG to provide land reforms * This thus angered the peasants, who began to seize land – another incident which highlighted the fact that the PG had no control of the people * Allowed Bolsheviks to use peasant discontent to win support * Return of Lenin * Lenin returned to Russia from exile in Switzerland with German aid * April Theses urged that the Bolsheviks should cease to support the PG, that all power should be taken by the Soviets, and that Russia should withdraw from the war * Promise of â€Å"Peace, Bread & Land† gave hope t and appealed to the masses against the increasing economic chaos * Posed a new challenge to the provisional government * July Days Massive demonstrations of workers, soldiers & sailors, to demand for the PG to give up their power to the Soviet * PG brought in troops to restore order; later condemned the Bolsheviks for trying to stage an uprising * Also made false claims that Lenin was a German spy * Led to a rapid decline in support for the Bolsheviks, eventually causing Lenin and other important leaders to flee for their safety int o Finland * After this incident, Lenin decided it was too early to revolt as the Bolsheviks had to gain more support from the people and realize his mistakes * Better and more careful planning for the next attempt at Revolution was also required as Lenin now also realized that the PG was well aware of their rising power and would take efforts to bring it down and deter its attempts at Revolution * Prince Lvov, head of the Provisional Government at that time, finally resigned and was replaced by Kerensky over his failure to deal with the instability * Kornilov Affair Severely embarrassed the PG as it showed that they did not have control over their own soldiers * Kornilov, Commander-in-Chief of the Russian Army, had originally viewed the Bolsheviks as traitors and had decided to move against the Soviets , but his soldiers mutinied * Army discipline was on the verge of collapse, public opinion swung against the war and in favour of the Bolsheviks, who was the only party to talk openly about making a separate peace * Kerensky had initially ordered Kornilov’s arrest, but his army refused to cooperate, and Kerensky had to rely on the Petrograd Soviet for help against the uprising * PG was therefore seen as weak * By this time the Bolsheviks were seen favourably and were garnering increasing support iv.In October Trotsky and the rest of the Bolshevik Red Guard launched a silent, bloodless attack against the PG in the middle of the night, seizing key power blocs and resulting in the birth of the first Communist Government * This attack was planned by Trotsky himself, highlighting his true brilliance as the plan was a success War Communism I. Popularity i. In a nutshell, war communism was a military success, but an economic failure ii. It was simply harsh economic measures and labour control to serve war needs iii. Nationalization of the segments & industries of the economy that effectively controlled & supported the others, such as oil, railroads, banking & st eel – the Commanding Heights iv. Rationing of basic goods & services v.However, the Bolshevik government eventually resorted to coercion when exhortation & persuasion failed II. Aims vi. To prevent the total collapse of the economy vii. Mobilize resources to defend communism from its enemies during the Civil War, eventually channeling sufficient resources for a Bolshevik victory over the Whites viii. Strict labour control ix. Putting the Marxist ideal of a state-controlled economy into practice III. Agriculture x. Grain requisitioning * Peasants were forced to give up their excess grain so that the workers in the factories & soldiers at the warfront could be fed Peasants vehemently objected to this * Uncooperative peasants were thus shot and killed A few peasants even destroyed their crops and harvest rather than have them seized, as many felt that it was unfair to them * As a result, a few peasants planted fewer crops the following season so that they would have less crops i n excess * Significance was that food production decreased, causing the bulk of the population to be affected by starvation, and this remained a problem throughout the Civil War xi. Land Nationalisation * 1917 Decree * Broke up larger estates * Land, together with the tools & livestock, were to be distributed to the peasants * 1918 Decree * Declared that the land, originally taken away from the kulaks, now officially belonged to the state * Peasants had the right to cultivate it * The next step the Bolsheviks took was to collectivize the land, but this failed in the end IV. Industry xii. Commanding Heights nationalized Met with great resistance, causing supporters to revolt * Jun 1918: all large-scale industry was nationalized without compensation * End 1918: all enterprises employing more than 10 workers were nationalized * Local soviets later extended this to all enterprises in their area V. Labour/ Workers xiii. Rationing * Those not producing their own food were allotted rations according to their usefulness * Workers & soldiers got the most, since they contributed the most to the Russian society * Professionals got significantly lesser rations than the workers * Class enemies got nothing Incurred the wrath of many people, as many found it discriminating & unfair * Workers were made to work in return for their ration cards – no work, no rations * Strikes were made illegal, hence people could only suffer in silence and could not complain * Eventually, people bartered their possessions in the black market in a desperate bid to gain more food and essentials xiv. Labour Conscription (1920) * Many workers had fled/ returned to the countryside to look for food after being convinced that the city had nothing more to provide for them * Hence, the Bolsheviks needed to bring them back to work in the factories, since a lack of manpower meant a sharp decline in production, and this in turn entailed a turbulent period for the state * Thus, they resorted to consc ription * All unions were state-controlled Ensured no strikes took place, since strikes meant production also stalled * Membership was compulsory as Russia needed to increase production * Workers had to volunteer an extra day of unpaid work for the sake of building Socialism xv. Wage incentives * Payments would gradually increase for every year that person worked VI. Trade xvi. No private trade was allowed * Black market thrived during the Civil War xvii. Bolsheviks made a rather beneficial move by abolishing the monetary system as they had known that during the war their currency would depreciate because of the uncertainty VII. Failures of Collectivization xviii.Widespread resistance to collective & soviet farms * Significant as 80% of the population was still living in the countryside, generating more than 50% of the national income * Resistance thus served as a warning to the government that if they did not do anything to improve the situation soon, the Russian economy would almo st certainly collapse * Peasants, seeing no point in working hard to produce food which was taken away from them without compensation, simply produced enough for their own needs xix. Depopulation of cities/ Food shortages * Workers were leaving in droves to the countryside to look for food and other prospects * Industry came to a standstill * Some attempted to buy and/or beg for food, but most failed to even make ends meet * Thus in Aug 1920, Moscow lost ? f its population, while Petrograd nearly 2/3 in the same period * Those who stayed in the cities had little, if any, food to survive on * As a result, in 1921 7 million in the cities starved to death * Significance: Bolsheviks lost their main source of supporters – the workers xx. Workers’ Strike * In January 1921 the already-meager bread rations to large population centres were once again cut by 1/3 * The workers of 64 large factories in Petrograd could withstand the suffering no longer, and went on strike * Demande d larger food rations * Wanted the restoration of the Workers’ Council & trade unions as their representatives * Soon became disillusioned with the Bolsheviks, and many thought the trade unions would be able to do a better job in looking after them xxi. Peasant Uprisings Russia was hit by plenty of natural disasters during the period of Civil War, such as droughts, dust, locusts, destroying much of the peasants’ crops and their main source of food * With the introduction of war communism, this took away everything from them, even grain seed * Culminated in large-scale peasant uprisings from 1920-1921 * E. g. In Feb 1921 there were 118 major peasant uprisings in various parts of the country xxii. Sailors’ Mutiny * Sailors at the Kronstadt naval base near Petrograd mutinied * Demanded an end to the Communist Party dictatorship * Wanted freedom of speech & fresh elections Suppressed only through prompt action by Trotsky, who sent troops across the ice on the frozen sea * They had been significant Bolshevik supporters, rooting for them from the very beginning * Thus their rebellion was a serious warning to the government * As a